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THE  FRUIT-GROWERS  GUIDE-BOOK 


The  Fruit-Growers 

Guide-Book 


BY 

E.   H.  FAVOR 

Associate  Editor 
THE  FRUIT-GROWER 


Published  by 

THE  FRUIT-GROWER 

St.  Joseph,  Mo. 
1911 


Copyrighted  1911 

by 

THE  FRUIT-GROWER 
St.  Joseph,  Mo. 


PREFACE 


.This  little  book  has  been  prepared  as  a  means  of  as- 
sisting many  persons  who  have  answered  the  call  "back  to 
the  land,"  and  who  are  undertaking  the  growing  of  fruit 
on  a  commercial  scale.  It  is  not  intended  as  an  exhaus- 
tive treatise  on  fruit  growing,  as  such  is  manifestly  im- 
possible within  the  size  of  such  a  book.  Neither  is  it  ex- 
pected to  tell  all  that  is  to  be  told  about  fruit  growing. 
Its  purpose  is  to  serve  for  the  guidance  of  the  beginner  and 
as  a  handy  reference  manual  for  the  busy  orchardist. 

The  foundation  upon  which  this  little  book  is  based  is 
the  many  letters  which  reach  the  office  of  The  Fruit- 
Grower,  containing  inquiries  about  many  phases  of  fruit- 
growing. These  inquiries  come  from  all  parts  of  the  United, 
States  and  from  Canada,  and  cover  almost  every  phase  of 
horticultural  work,  although  in  preparing  this  book  only 
the  general  problem  of  growing  the  ordinary  deciduous 
orchard  fruits  has  been  considered.  This  problem  has  been 
considered  in  a  very  general  way  without  specific  direc- 
tions for  any  particular  fruit.  Where  details  for  a  given 
fruit  have  been  needed,  the  treatment  of  the  subject  has 
been  boiled  down  to  as  concise  a  form  as  possible. 


497702 


6  Preface 

The  present  age  is  witnessing  a  remarkable  advance- 
ment in  fruit  growing,  as  well  as  all  other  lines  of  agricul- 
ture. This  development  is  coming  about  through  the  fact 
that  greater  individual  attention  is  being  given  to  each 
line  of  work.  Fruit-growing  has  been  largely  a  matter 
incidental  to  the  general  line  of  farming.  But  as  it  is  the 
specialist  in  any  line  who  succeeds,  so  it  has  come  that  the 
business  of  growing  fruit  has  been  drawing  away  more  and 
more  from  its  connection  with  other  phases  of  farming. 
This  very  fact  is  one  of  the  great  reasons  for  the  rapid 
advancements  which  have  been  made  in  orcharding.  So 
rapid  is  the  advancement  in  fruit-growing  that  the  pro- 
gressive orchardist  must  be  continually  on  the  alert  to  keep 
up  with  the  new  ideas  and  practices  which  are  being  devel- 
oped. Ten  years  ago  the  box  as  an  apple  package  was  prac- 
tically unknown.  The  spraying  machine  was  a  novelty  and 
was  looked  upon  with  suspicion;  fruit-growing  under  irriga- 
tion was  a  novelty  in  the  extreme  arid  cold  storage  plants 
were  rare.  Even  so  recent  as  three  years  ago,  but  few  fruit- 
growers had  ever  heard  of  really  effective  means  of  beating 
Jack  Frost  at  his  own  game.  But  the  orchard  man  of  the 
hour  knows  how  to  spray  effectually,  how  to  pack  his  fruit, 
how  to  fight  frost;  recognizes  all  of  these  things  as  vital 
factors  in  the  management  of  his  business. 

The  facts  which  are  outlined  in  this  volume  have  been 
culled  and  compiled  from  many  of  the  important  articles 
which  have  appeared  in  the  columns  of  The  Fruit-Grower 
during  the  past  two  or  three  years,  as  well  as  from  some 
of  the  bulletins  which  have  issued  from  the  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture and  the  State  Experiment  Stations.  These  articles 


Preface  7 

have  been  condensed  and  only  the  essential  facts  retained, 
to  bring  them  within  the  space  of  one  small  book.  The 
publishers  have  for  a  long  time  felt  the  need  for  such  a 
book  as  this,  and  it  is  their  hope,  as  well  as  the  hope  of 
the  writer,  that  it  will  be  of  assistance  to  many  persons  in 
paving  the  way  for  more  profitable  orchards  and  better 
homes. 

January,  1911.  E.  H.  FAVOR. 


Contents 


CONTENTS 


Page 
Chapter  I — The  Orchard   15 

Chapter  II — Orchard  Heating   .-,;.•« 48 

Chapter  III — Thinning  and  Harvesting 64 

Chapter  IV— Packing 76 

Chapter  V — Spraying  , Ill 

Chapter  VI — Orchard  Pesj;s  and  Diseases   134 

Chapter  VII— Principles  of  Pruning  173 

Chapter  VIII — Profits  in  Fruit-Growing 199 

Chapter  IX — Small  Fruits 204 


Illustrations  11 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

Wash  through  deep  soil 16 

A  compact  orchard  community  25 

Diagram  of  orchard  planted  in  squares   28 

Diagram  of  orchard  planted  in  triangles 30 

Diagram  of  an  orchard  planted  with  "fillers" 39 

Troutman  oil  burning  heaters   51 

Filling  "Ideal"  coal  burning  heaters   55 

Peaches  at  right  stage  for  thinning   65 

Apples  at  right  stage  for  thinning 66 

Interior  peach  packing  shed    90 

A  nicely  faced  barrel  of  apples  93 

Apples  are  usually  barreled  in  the  orchard   94 

General  appearance  Hamilton  grading  machine  99 

Upper  end  of  the  machine    100 

The  belts  of  the  grader 101 

Looking  down  on   the  belt 103 

Four  tier  apples  packed  "straight."    104 

Beginning  the  pack    107 

Finished  box,  4^  tier  apples  108 

Starting  the  straight  and  diagonal  pack  109 

Barrel  spray  outfit    112 

Power  sprayer  in  operation   115 

High  pressure  spraying  machines  and  refilling  tank...  117 
Convenient  arrangement  for  mixing  spray  material. ..  .120 

Woolly  aphis    : 135 

Galls  produced  by  woolly  aphis   136 

Codling  moth .  140 

Plum  curculio    .  ..142 


12  Illustrations 


Apple   curculio    144 

Flat  headed  borer  145 

Apple  blossoms  at  stages  for  spraying  .159 

Strawberry  leaf  spot    172 

Long  stubs  left  in  pruning 177 

Large  wounds  properly  made   180 

Apple  tree  with  open-top  184 

Good  arrangement  of  branches  in  young  peach  trees  ..186 

Three  branches  in  head  of  peach  tree   187 

Average  type  of  peach  tree   188 

Open  head  on  peach  tree   190 

Low  headed  peach  tree  with  open  top  191 

Dewberry  trained  to  a  post    197 

Crops  between  trees  200 

Tomatoes  as  a  catch  crop   202 

Currant  cuttings  209 

Grape  cuttings 214 

Black  raspberry  cane  with  rooted  tips  221 

Strawberries  for  planting   230 

Old  strawberry  plant 232 

Strawberry  flowers   236 

Wide  matted  rows  of  strawberries  . . 238 

Portable  canning  outfit 241 

A  fine  young  apple  orchard  in  the  irrigated  country. .  .  .250 

Apple  grafts    258 

Long  and  short  scions   259 

Right  and  wrong  way  to  plant  a  graft  260 

Pear  graft  and  scions  for  cleft-grafting 261 

A  top-worked  apple  tree  263 

Budding  sticks   266 

Budding  peaches    268 

Irrigating  an  apple  orchard  277 


"BROTHER  JONATHAN" 

Trade  Mark  of  The  Fruit- Grower 

St.  Joseph,  Mo. 


Soils  fch  'an*  Orchard        -^    ,  -;  j    -      15 


CHAPTER  I 

The  Orchard 

One  of  the  first  questions  that  confronts  a  person  who 
is  starting  an  orchard  is  the  problem  of  where  to  put  it. 
It  is  true  that  fruit  trees  will  grow  and  thrive  under  a 
variety  of  conditions,  but  there  is  always  one  which  is  best. 
This  condition  is  based  on  such  factors  as  the  soil,  site,  lo- 
cation, kind  of  fruit  that  is  to  be  grown  and  markets  that 
are  to  be  supplied. 

Soils  for  an  Orchard 

Apple  trees  will  grow  on  a  great  variety  of  soils,  but 
they  do  best  on  well  drained,  deep,  rich  clays  and  loams. 
The  early  summer  apples  do  well  on  light  sandy  soils, 
because  they  ripen  their  fruit  before  the  dry  weather  of 
summer  reduces  the  amount  of  available  soil  moisture. 
Late  maturing  varieties  can  be  made  to  ripen  their  fruit  a 
little  earlier  by  planting  on  warm  soils,  such  as  the  lighter 
clays.  Late  apples  do  best  on  heavy  soils,  as  such  are 
usually  more  retentive  of  moisture.  Excessively  rich  soils, 
such  as  some  of  the  muck  lands  of  the  Northern  and  East- 
ern states,  will  produce  very  rank-growing  trees,  but  they 
will  not  be  very  good  fruit  producers,  as  the  energy  of 
the  trees  is  spent  in  producing  wood.  On  such  soils  there 
is  the  added  danger  of  the  wood  growth  being  so  soft  at 
the  time  winter  comes  that  the  branches  will  be  severely 
frozen  back. 

Orchard  soils  should  be  rich,  however,  as  it  takes  a 
great  amount  of  soil  fertility  to  supply  the  necessary  ele- 
ments to  build  up  the  wood  in  the  tree,  and  this  must 


16      i    c  t  .«  vvThe.Rruit-6rowerzj  Guide-Book 

always  ^  be -<l-one  ^before -fire"  fruit  can  be  developed.  Nur- 
sery trees  are  very  hard  on  the  soil,  and  for  this  reason 
nurserymen  know  that  it  is  necessary  to  fertilize  their 
lands  very  thoroughly,  as  by  that  means  only  can  they 
produce  good,  strong  and  vigorous  trees.  If  trees  con- 


m 


A  wash  through  deep  soil.     Such  a  soil  is  ideal  for  fruit, 
as  it  allows  the  roots  to  penetrate  to  a  great  depth. 

tinued  to  grow  as  thriftily  in  the  orchard  as  they  do  in  the 
nursery,  there  would  be  a  thousandfold  greater  returns 
from  the  orchard  than  there  are  today.  A  very  large  pro- 
portion of  the  trees  that  are  planted  in  the  orchard  today 
are  lost  by  starvation  before  they  reach  bearing  age.  A 


New   Land  17 

soil  which  has  been  cropped  to  death  and  worn  out  before 
being  planted  to  trees  is  not  suitable  for  orchard  land  until 
after  it  has  undergone  several  years  of  soil  improving 
culture. 

New  Land 

New  land  is  very  -desirable  for  an  orchard,  and  especial- 
ly land  which  has  just  been  cleared  of  a  heavy  growth  of 
timber.  The  decaying  foliage  and  roots  of  the  forest 
growth  leaves  the  soil  with  a  generous  supply  of  humus, 
and  will  produce  a  luxuriant  growth  of  wood  in  the  young 
trees.  However,  the  land  should  be  freed  from  all  stumps 
and  roots  before  the  orchard  is  planted,  as  this  work  is 
done  more  easily  and  cheaply  while  the  entire  area  is  open 
and  free  for  the  movement  of  the  teams  necessary  in  clear- 
ing the  land. 

In  lands  that  are  covered  with  a  growth  of  scrub  oak 
there  is  much  danger  from  root  rot  becoming  troublesome 
and  planting  immediately  after  the  timber  is  removed  is 
not  advisable.  In  any  land  from  which  the  timber  has  just 
been  removed  it  is  always  best  to  put  the  grotfnd  into 
some  cultivated  or  soil  building  crop  such  as  corn,  pota- 
toes, clover  or  cow  peas  for  a  couple  of  years  before  plant- 
ing the  trees. 

Stony  land  is  not  at  all  objectionable  for  orchards,  as 
on  steep  slopes  the  stones  help  in  protecting  the  soil  from 
excessive  washing,  and  no  doubt  help  materially  in  warm- 
ing up  the  soil  in  the  spring.  A  stony  soil  is  usually  a 
well  drained  soil.  On  lands  which  have  a  very  steep  slope 
the  stones  can  easily  be  made  into  terraces  below  the  trees 
or  they  may  be  placed  in  the  form  of  terraces  between 
each  two  rows  of  trees.  Unless  the  soil  is  very  thin  stones 
may  be  considered  as  a  benefit  rather  than  otherwise,  be- 
cause of  the  value  they  are  to  the  land  in  assisting  in  drain- 
age and  in  protecting  the  soil  from  washing. 

Where  virgin  soil  cannot  be  had  for  the  orchard,  only 
rich  land  should  be  used.  An  orchard  will  occupy  the  land 
for  many  years,  and  very  thorough  preparation  should  be 
given  before  the  trees  are  planted.  Never  set  the  trees 


18  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

on  poor  or  dry  land,  for  if  they  do  start  they  are  so 
stunted  that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  ever  get  them  to 
make  a  satisfactory  orchard.  Lands  which  have  been  used 
for  grain  crops  for  several  years,  without  the  addition  of 
plenty  of  manure,  or  green  manuring  crops,  should  not  be 
planted  until  the  soil  has  been  built  up.  Old  pasture  lands, 
while  possibly  rich  in  fertility,  should  be  in  some  culti- 
vated crop  for  at  least  one  season  before  planting  to  or- 
chard, so  as  to  get  the  soil  into  better  tilth.  It  is  always 
cheaper  and  easier  to  prepare  land  for  an  orchard  before 
the  trees  are  planted  than  afterwards. 

Before  trees  are  set  in  an  orchard  the  land  should  be 
deeply  and"  thoroughly  plowed  and  put  into  the  best  pos- 
sible tilth.  In  soils  that  are  excessively  stony,  or  in  which 
it  is  very  expensive  to  plow  the  entire  area,  a  strip  through 
the  field  where  the  rows  are  to  stand  should  be  made,  and 
the  soil  worked  deep.  In  case  the  soil  is  shallow,  and  un- 
derlaid by  a  hardpan,  it  is  always  desirable  that  a  subsoil 
plow  follow  the  furrow  after  the  turning  plow,  so  as  to 
break  up  the  hardpan  immediately  under  the  trees,  and  let 
the  young  roots  penetrate  as  deep  as  possible,  thereby  in- 
creasing their  feeding  area,  and  affording  a  better  anchor- 
age for  the  trees. 

Selecting  a  Site  for  the  Orchard 

The  site  of  the  orchard  has  great  influence  on  its  fruit- 
fulness,  and  in  a  commercial  orchard  the  site  needs  due 
consideration  with  reference  to  the  surrounding  condi- 
tions, such  as  the  slope  of  the  land,  and  the  direction  it 
faces,  the  nearness  to  a  large  body  of  water  or  high  bluff 
or  mountain,  etc.  For  the  home  orchard  the  site  is  often 
predetermined,  and  the  orchard  has  to  be  planted  on  what- 
ever land  is  left  after  the  house  and  lawn  have  been  pro- 
vided. 

For  a  commercial  orchard  it  is  always  to  be  desired 
that  the  orchard  should  be  somewhat  elevated  over  the 
surrounding  country,  in  order  that  free  air  drainage  be 
secured,  and  thereby  reduce  the  tendency  toward  late 
spring  frosts.  In  many  instances  this  will  give  material 


Selecting  a   Site  for  the  Orchard 


19 


assistance  in  preventing  frost  in  the  late  spring,  as  it  is 
well  known  that  cold  air  is  heavier  than  warm  air,  and 
flows  to  the  lower  levels.  To  get  the  benefit  of'  this  air 
drainage,  the  orchard  must  be  on  high  land  with  lower 
land  immediately  near,  such  as  a  ravine  or  valley.  Hill 
tops  afford  the  most  ideal  positions  as  regards  air  drainage 
and  if  other  conditions  are  satisfactory  make  excellent  lo- 
cations for  orchards. 


Rolling-  land,  such  as  this,  gives  good  air  drainage  and 
furnishes  a  good  orchard  site. 

Northern  and  eastern  slopes  are  regarded  as  best  for 
apple  orchards,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  are  slower  in 
warming  up  in  the  spring  than  slopes  in  other  directions. 
This  condition  results  in  retarding  the  blooming  period  of 
trees,  and  is  often  sufficient  to  avoid  injury  from  frost  in 
many  seasons.  A  site  facing  the  direction  of  the  prevail- 
ing winds  will  often  have  a  marked  influence  on  the  less- 
ened damage  from  frost  in  spring.  This  is  especially  true 
of  those  sections  in  the  mountainous  states  where  there 
are  strong  canon  winds,  as  the  constant  movement  of  the 


20  The   Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

air  prevents  frostiness.  Soils  on  the  northern  and  eastern 
slopes  are  generally  deeper  and  richer  than  those  found 
on  southern  or  western  slopes,  possibly  because  the  sun 
cioes  not  strike  such  slopes  so  directly  and  does  not  burn 
out  the  humus  so  quickly. 

Southern  slopes  are  earlier  and  permit  of  a  longer 
growing  season.  Trees  which  are  situated  on  southern 
exposures  receive  more  sunshine,  and  usually  develop 
fruits  of  higher  color  than  on  the  north  and  east.  In 
regions  where  the  growing  season  is  short,  it  is  always 
best  to  select  a  strong  southern  exposure  for  the  orchard. 
In  high  altitudes  this  fact  is  often  of  great  importance,  as 
any  element  which  will  prolong  the  season  for  late  apples 
and  induce  them  to  take  on  their  full  color  should  be  fav- 
ored. Early  varieties  in  high  altitudes  will  usually  mature 
on  northern  or  eastern  slopes. 

The  soil  on  southern  and  western  slopes  is  usually 
drier  than  on  the  opposite  sides,  and  for  this  reason  it 
frequently  happens  that  fruits  from  orchards  having  strong 
southern  or  western  slopes  is  smaller  than  from  orchards 
on  the  other  sides.  The  dryness  of  soils  on  southern  ex- 
posures may  be  easily  controlled  by  the  use  of  manures 
and  cover  crops,  together  with  intelligent  cultivation  and 
handling  of  the  soil. 

Large  bodies  of  water,  either  a  lake  or  river,  has  an 
ameliorating  influence  upon  the  climate  in  their  immediate 
vicinity.  Orchards  on  lands  which  slope  towards  large 
bodies  of  water  are  more  immune  from  radical  atmos- 
pheric changes.  The  slope  on  the  side  of  such  body  of 
water  towards  which  the  prevailing  winds  blow  is  prefer- 
able, because  the  air  in  passing  over  the  water  becomes 
modified  in  temperature  and  its  moisture  content  is  in- 
creased. 

Location  for  a  Commercial  Orchard 

The  location  of  a  commercial  orchard  is  a  matter  that 
varies  widely  with  the  local  conditions,  and  is  dependent 
largely  on  the  part  of  the  country,  nearness  to  transpor- 


Location  for  a  Commercial  Orchard  21 

tation  and  market,  condition  of  the  soil  and  water,  alti- 
tude, latitude  and  climate  and  the  kind  of  fruit  to  be  grown. 
In  selecting  a  location  for  a  commercial  orchard  it  is 
always  best  to  get  into  a  community  where  fruit  is  being 
grown  commercially,' as  in  such  a  location  there  will  always 


This  orchard,  situated  on  rolling  land  and  right  along 
the  railroad,  has  all  that  could  be  asked  for  in  the  way  of 
site  and  location. 

be  found  the  right  conditions  for  that  particular  kind  of 
fruit,  as  well  as  persons  who  are  acquainted  with  the  lo- 
cality and  able  to  give  reliable  advice. 

With  a  commercial  orchard,  about  the  first  consider- 
ation is  the  transportation  facilities.  It  is  always  best  to 
get  where  .there  are  satisfactory  means  of  carrying  the 
product  to  market,  and  where  one  can  have  the  advantage 


22  The   Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

,  of  competing  lines,  such  as  two  or  more  railroads  or  steam- 
boat lines.  It  is  true  that  transportation  lines  will  enter 
any  section  where  there  is  business  for  them,  but  it  takes 
many  thousands  of  acres  of  fruit  to  produce  enough  busi- 
ness to  induce  a  railroad  to  build  into  one's  territory.  It 
is  always  best  to  locate  the  markets  and  ways  of  reaching 
them,  and  then  the  location  of  the  orchard  can  be  more 
easily  selected. 

In  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States  it  is  less 
difficult  to  get  easy  means  of  reaching  one's  market  than 
it  is  in  the  far  western  states,  and  in  such  locations  the 
matter  of  transportation  may  not  be  of  such  serious  im- 
portance, as  soil  which  is  adapted  to  the  particular  kind 
of  fruit  that  it  is  desired  to  grow.  For  the  general  run  of 
our  orchard  fruits,  soils  which  are  not  excessively  wet,  or 
too  very  sandy,  will  serve,  although  this  may  be  varied  to 
some  extent  under  local  conditions. 

Altitude  and  latitude  will  affect  the  possibilities  of  com- 
mercial orcharding,  directly  as  it  influences  the  climate. 
In  most  of  the  mountainous  sections  of  the  country,  how- 
ever, fruit  growing  cannot  be  carried  on  at  an  altitude 
much  above  6,000  feet,  as  the  growing  season  is  generally 
too  short  for  a  crop  of  fruit  to  be  matured.  Climatic  con- 
ditions influence  the  variety  of  fruit  that  may  be  grown, 
although  the  greatest  orchard  fruit,  the  apple,  is  grown  in 
every  state  in  the  union  and  in  every  country  in  the  world. 
It,  however,  has  its  climatic  limitations  as  a  commercial 
crop,  doing  better  where  the  winters  are  cold  and  the  sum- 
mers not  too  long  and  hot.  In  the  Southern  states  the 
possibilities  of  apple  orcharding  are  more  limited  than  in 
the  Northern  states,  and  the  list  of  varieties  confined  more 
particularly  to  the  summer,  or  early  maturing  kinds. 
Peaches  have  limitations  of  much  the  same  kind,  as  some 
types  of  peaches,  the  Peen-to  especially,  cannot  be  grown 
with  satisfaction  outside  of  the  extreme  southern  Gulf 
coast  country. 

The  distance  of  the  orchard  from  the  shipping  point 
has  an  influence  in  the  location  of  the  orchard,  as  the  labor 
of  transporting  the  fruit  to  the  shipping  point  reduces  the 
profits,  and  increases  the  danger  of  spoiling  the  fruit  by 


Preparing  Land  for  an  Orchard  23 

bruising.  In  some  of  the  Western  states,  where  the  fruit 
growers  are  well  organized  into  compact  communities,  the 
growers  find  that  it  is  best  not  to  get  farther  than  three 
miles  under  general  conditions  from  the  shipping  point 
when  peaches  are  to  be  handled.  The  apple  grower,  on  the 
other  hand,  can  get  farther  away  than  that,  and  the  grower 
of  strawberries  may  not  profitably  get  so  far  away.  Where 
the  fruit  producing  area  extends  to  a  distance  of  several 
miles  away  from  the  railroad  station,  spur  tracks  can 
sometimes  be  constructed  to  reduce  the  distance. 

If  one  is  not  acquainted  with  the  possibilities  of  any 
particular  location,  when  it  comes  to  selecting  the  fruits 
for  a  commercial  orchard,  it  is  always  best  to  consult  with 
someone  who  is  able  to  give  the  desired  advice.  Many 
mistakes  can  be  thus  avoided. 

Preparing  Land  for  an  Orchard 

A  serious  mistake  that  is  commonly  made  in  planting 
an  orchard  is  to  be  in  too  great  a  hurry.  An  orchard  is 
planted  to  last  for  years,  and  undue  haste  at  the  beginning 
will  generally  result  in  a  shorter  life  for  the  trees.  This 
great  hurry  to  get  the  orchard  planted  is  most  apparent  in 
lack  of  preparation  of  the  soil.  It  takes  time  to  put  any 
soil  in  the  best  condition  to  receive  the  trees,  and  fre- 
quently,-to  get  the  trees  planted  as  cheaply  as  possible, 
they  are  put  into  the  ground  before  the  soil  is  ready  to 
receive  them.  This  is  especially  true  when  orchards  are 
planted  on  land  from  which  the  native  growth  has  just 
been  removed. 

Land  that  is  to  be  planted  to  orchard  should  be  under 
cultivation  for  at  least  two  years  before  the  trees  are 
planted,  and  especially  so  on  lands  which  have  a  heavy 
growth  of  timber.  With  such  land  all  of  the  stumps  and 
roots  should  be  removed,  and  this  can  be  done  at  a  much 
smaller  expense  before  the  orchard  is  planted  than  after- 
wards. New  land  is  always  hard  to  cultivate,  because  of 
the  roots  which  sprout  and  try  to  grow,  and  among  young 
orchard  trees  such  sprouts  cause  endless  trouble  until  they 
are  removed.  It  is  best  on"  such  new  land  to  plant  some 


24  The   Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

crop  that  must  be  cultivated,  such  as  potatoes,  corn,  sugar 
beets  or  cotton,  and  follow  this  the  second  year  with  a  le- 
guminous crop,  such  as  cowpeas,  soja  beans  or  crimson 
clover.  The  cultivation  necessary  for  such  a  crop  as  pota- 
toes will  keep  the  soil  so  continually  disturbed  during  the 
first  summer  that  many  of  the  roots  will  be  dragged  out 
and  few  of  them  will  have  a  chance  to  grow.  The  heavy 
growth  made  the  next  season  by  the  leguminous  crop  will 
so  shade  the  soil  that  any  sprouts  that  appear  will  be 
smothered  out,  so  that  they  can  make  but  little  if  any 
growth.  This  crop  of  legumes  should  not  be  cut  for  hay, 
but  turned  under,  where  their  fiber  will  become  humus. 
Most  soils  are  deficient  in  humus,  and  especially  in  nitro- 
gen so  that  a  two-fold  purpose  can  be  obtained  by  growing 
and  plowing  under  a  leguminous  crop. 

Land  which  has  been  under  cultivation  a  long  time  will 
be  materially  helped  by  having  a  crop  of  green  manure 
plowed  under,  as  old  fields  generally  have  the  humus  sup- 
ply so  worn  out  as  to  be  badly  impoverished,  and  not  in  a 
fit  condition  for  trees  to  do  their  best.  A  young  orchard 
should  make  a  strong  and  vigorous  growth  during  the  first 
few  years  so  as  to  build  up  a  large  framework  for  fruit 
production,  and  this  framework  cannot  be  obtained  on 
weak  soil.  The  soil  in  an  old  pasture  is  generally  excel- 
lent for  an  orchard,  as  it  will  contain  a  larger  supply  of 
humus  and  nitrogenous  food  materials  than  any  other 
ordinary  fields. 

In  preparing  the  ground  for  an  orchard  it  should  be 
plowed  as  deep  as  possible,  so  as  to  loosen  up  the  soil  and 
make  it  possible  for  the  tree  roots  to  penetrate  into  the 
lower  soil.  Shallow  rooted  trees  do  not  live  long,  and  are 
easily  influenced  by  dry  weather.  It  is  best  to  do,  every- 
thing to  make  the  tree  roots  go  deep  into  the  soil,  as  they 
will  thus  have  a  better  anchorage,  and  be  nearer  a  more 
constant  source  of  water  than  when  the  roots  are  allowed 
to  run  close  to  the  surface.  The  land  should  be  plowed 
in  the  fall  and  not  less  than  six  weeks  before  planting  time 
if  a  very  heavy  crop  is  to  be  turned  under.  This  is  to  give 
time  for  the  crop  to  decay  before  the  trees  are  planted. 
When  a  heavy  crop  is  turned  under  it  is  best  in  most  cases 


26  The   Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

to  wait  until  spring  to  do  the  planting.  The  soil  will  then 
be  in  the  best  condition  and  the  planting  can  proceed  rap- 
idly. 

Preparing  Irrigated  Land  for  Planting 

Most  orchards  in  irrigated  sections  are  planted  in  raw 
land,  and  when  well  and  carefully  done  it  is  satisfactory, 
but  when  done  by  inexperienced  and  uninformed  persons 
it  does,  not  always  result  in  a  good  orchard.  Raw  irri- 
gated lands  should  be  cultivated  for  at  least  one  season 
with  either  grain  or  alfalfa,  and  are  materially  improved 
if  a  green  manure  crop  is  turned  under  the  fall  before 
planting. 

The  land  should  be  plowed  thoroughly  and  deeply  all 
over  and  not  just  down  the  tree  rows.  Fruit  trees  are 
shallow  rooted  at  best  in  the  majority  of  irrigated  soils 
because  of  the  dry  and  hard  subsoil,  and  unless  the  soil  is 
loosened  up  deep  and  the  subsoil  well  soaked  with  water, 
the  trees  will  not  root  as  deeply  as  could  be  desired. 

Lands  which  settle  after  being  put  under  irrigation 
should  be  thoroughly  watered  and  settled  before  planting, 
and  all  irrigated  lands  should  be  perfectly  leveled  before 
the  orchard  is  planted.  This  will  materially  assist  in  lay- 
ing out  and  planting  the  trees,  and  do  away  with  releveling 
after  the  trees  are  planted.  It  is  always  best  to  plow  the 
land  in  the  fall  and  allow  the  soil  to  lay  rough  all  winter. 
It  will  be  loose  and  friable  in  the  spring  and  be  much 
more  easily  worked  than  if  not  fall  plowed.  Fall  plowing 
has  the  additional  advantage  of  enabling  the  soil  to  take 
up  more  of  the  winter  precipitation,  and  hence  it  will  water 
more  easily  when  irrigation  is  attempted.  It  is  often  very 
difficult  to  get  the  water  over  spring  plowed  land  the  first 
time  it  is  irrigated. 

Laying  Out  the  Orchard 

The  plan  for  laying  out  the  orchard  can  be  arranged 
in  any  manner  that  suits  the  convenience  of  the  planter, 
although  there  are  two  systems  that  are  in  common  use, 


Laying  Out  the  Orchard  27 

one  of  them  being  the  square  or  rectangular,  and  the  other 
the  hexagonal  system,  or  system  of  equilateral  triangles. 

In  the  square  system  of  planting,  the  trees  are  planted 
at  right  angles  to  each  other  and  at  the  same  distance 
apart  each  way,  the  distance  apart  varying  according  to 
the  kind  of  tree  and  to  the  ideas  of  the  planter.  The  hex- 
agonal system  allows  the  maximum  number  of  plants  per 
acre  at  a  given  distance  apart,  being  approximately  15  per 
cent  more  than  in  the  square. 


These  trees  are  set  in  perfectly  straight  rows. 

The  great  advantage  of  the  square  system  is  that  it 
allows  cultivation  in  either  direction  with  the  same  ease. 
In  the  hexagonal  system  the  trees  are  planted -so  that  they 
have  the  same  amount  of  space  all  around,  and  alternate 
in  the  rows,  making  the  space  between  the  rows  narrower 
than  the  distance  between  the  trees  in  the  rows.  The 
distance  apart  at  which  any  variety  of  fruit  should  be  set 
will  depend  largely  on  the  distance  at  which  the  planter 
cares  to  set  them,  and  to  some  extent  on  the  habit  of  the 
variety  and  on  the  soil.  Missouri  Pippin  and  Wagener 
apples  can  be  set  closer  together  than  varieties  having  the 
wide  spreading  habit  of  Mammoth  Black  Twig. 

With  apples,  the  customary  distance  for  planting  varies 
somewhat  with  the   section   of  the   country,   being  wider 


2S 


The   Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 


apart  in  the  Eastern  states  than  in  the  far  Western.  In 
the  far  Western  states  apples  are  frequently  set  as  close 
as  twenty  feet,  while  in  the  extreme  East  they  will  be 
double  or  treble  this  distance.  The  usual,  and  perhaps  the 
best  distance  apart  for  apples  in  commercial  orchards,  is 
about  thirty  feet.  At  this  distance  there  will  be  ample 
room  between  the  trees  for  a  number  of  years  after  they 


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Diagram  of  an  orchard  with  trees  planted  in  squares. 
This  system  gives  greatest  amount  of  room  between  rows. 

come  into  bearing.  With  pears  the  distance  can  be  some- 
what less,  as  most  varieties  are  of  a  more  upright  habit 
than  the  apple.  Peaches  are  generally  set  about  eighteen 
or  twenty  feet  apart,  although  when  trained  with  an  open 
center  it  crowds  the  trees  after  they  have  reached  their 
maturity. 

Before  laying  out  the  orchard  it  is  always  best  to  figure 
out  how  the  trees  can  be  arranged  to  best  advantage.  They 
ought  to  be  set  so  as  to  allow  of  ample  room  around  the 


Laying  Out  the  Orchard  29 

sides  to  do  the  necessary  work  without  crowding  against 
the  boundary  fence.  It  is  better  always  to  plant  the  trees 
so  that  they  have  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  distance 
on  all  sides,  rather  than  to  have  twice  the  distance  in  one 
direction  as  in  the  other. 

There  are  a  number  of  different  ways  of  laying  out  an 
orchard  and  some  of  the  simple  plans  are  very  satisfactory. 
In  using  any  plan  the  effort  should  be  to  get  all  of  the 
trees  set  in  perfectly  straight  rows,  so  that  they  may  be 
sighted  over  in  any  direction  and  perfect  rows  can  be  seen. 
This  is  simply  to  improve  appearances. 

Begin  the  rows  sufficiently  far  inside  the  fence  line  to 
enable  all  operations  to  be  done  without  crowding  against 
the  fence  when  the  trees  get  large.  This  will  vary  a  good 
deal  with  circumstances,  but  ought  to  be  not  less  than 
twenty  or  twenty-five  feet. 

Along  one  side  of  the  orchard,  say  the  north,  lay  off 
a  line  indicating  with  stakes  that  can  be  plainly  seen. 
Along  the  east  side  of  the  orchard  lay  off  another  line  at 
right  angles  with  the  first,  and  mark  it  plainly  in  the  same 
manner.  Lay  off  two  more  sets  of  lines  in  the  same  man- 
ner through  the  middle  of  the  orchard  and  on  the  other 
two  sides,  making  all  lines  at  right  angles  and  erecting 
substantial  stakes  that  can  be  plainly  seen.  Along  each  of 
the  lines  now  put  in  a  stake  at  the  exact  place  the  tree  is 
to  occupy.  This  will  make  three  guide  stakes  in  every  tree 
row,  and  with  a  plow  following  along  each  line  of  stakes 
the  tree  rows  can  be  quickly  laid  off  ready  for  planting. 
A  shovel  plow  is  most  useful  for  this  marking,  especially 
where  a  large  area  is  to  be  marked  off  at  one  time. 

Another  plan  that  works  very  satisfactorily,  but  takes  a 
little  longer  is  to  lay  off  the  first  rows  as  above  described 
and  instead  of  plowing  lines  across  the  field  a  small  stake 
is  placed  at  the  exact  spot  a  tree  is  to  occupy.  This  has  the 
advantage  of  enabling  the  planter  to  line  up  all  of  his  rows 
perfectly  straight  before  a  tree  is  planted.  In  either  case 
the  holes  are  dug  with  a  spade,  and  in  the  latter  case  the 
tree  is  set  in  the  exact  position  of  the  stake  by  use  of  a 
board  some  three  or  four  feet  long  having  a  hole  in  each 


30 


The   Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 


end  and  a  notch  in  the  middle.  Before  the  stake  is  dis- 
turbed lay  the  board  down  so  that  the  notch  is  at  the  stake, 
then  drive  a  peg  through  the  holes  at  the  end  of  the  board. 
The  board  can  be  removed  and  the  hole  dug  without  fur- 
ther care  for  the  original  stake.  When  the  hole  is  ready 
place  the  board  back  over  the  pegs  and  place  the  tree  in 
the  notch,  and  it  will  occupy  the  same  position  exactly  of 
the  original  stake.  If  the  stakes  are  lined  up  perfectly, 


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One  Acre   _ 


Diagram  of  an  orchard  with  trees  planted  in  triangles. 
This  system  gives  a  greater  number  of  trees  per  acre  than 
when  planted  in  squares,  but  leaves  less  room  between  rows. 

the  trees  will  also  be  in  perfectly  straight  rows  when  the 
planting  is  finished. 

Where  the  trees  are  set  in  triangles,  a  common  method 
for  small  plantations  is  to  plant  only  one  outside  row. 
Then  with  a  large  triangular  frame  whose  sides  are  the  dis- 
tances between  the  trees  in  the  triangle,  is  placed  so  that 
two  corners  are  in  contact  with  two  trees  in  the  row.  At 
the  third  corner  a  third  tree  is  set.  By  moving  this  tri- 


Laying  Out  the  Orchard  31 

angle  from  tree  to  tree  across  the  field  and  setting  so  that 
a  tree  is  in  exact  contact  with  each  corner,  the  trees  will 
all  line  up  perfectly  and  be  in  exact  triangles.  This  method 
does  not  give  perfectly  straight  rows  unless  used  care- 
fully. All  trees  must  be  in  contact  with  the  triangular 
frame  each  time. 

Laying  Out  an  Orchard  on  Rough  or  Steep  Hill  Land 

It  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  lay  out  an  orchard 
on  land  that  is  level  or  approximately  so,  but  it  is  a  dif- 
ferent matter  where  the  ground  is  very  rough  or  steep, 
and  which  may  need  to  be  terraced.  In  some  of  the  moun- 
tain cove  lands  of  the  Eastern  states  planting  in  contours 
or  terracing  may  be  necessary  in  order  to  prevent  the  soil 
from  being  washed  away,  or  to  facilitate  the  tillage  of  the 
crops.  In  many  instances  these  terraces  can  be  easily 
constructed  without  the  use  of  instruments,  but  in  others 
a  surveyor's  level,  or  instruments  of  the  same  nature  may 
have  to  be  put  into  use.  Mr.  F.  T.  Meecham  describes  a 
home-made  instrument  called  an  "  'A'  level"  that  serves 
very  well  in  laying  out  terraces  on  hill  land  as  follows: 

"To  construct  an  A  level,  use  well-seasoned  timber, 
pine  being  preferable  because  it  is  light  and  does  not  tend 
to  warp.  Take  three  pieces  10  feet  long,  3  inches  wide  and 
y2  inch  thick.  Now  lay  on  a  level  floor  so  as  to  get  the 
instrument  of  a  rod  span.  The  rod  is  commonly  used  in 
measuring  land  and  is  generally  best,  as  it  gets  over  land 
faster  than  a  ten-foot  level.  Drive  two  nails  in  the  floor 
just  a  rod,  or  16J^  feet  apart,  saw  off  the  ends  of  the  two 
pieces  to  be  used  for  legs  so  that  the  ends  will  rest  on  the 
floor.  Now  place  one  end  of  each  leg  against  the  nails 
and  let  the  pieces  cross  above  your  head  and  just  exactly 
over  the  center  of  the  rod  span.  Put  a  bolt  here  through 
both  pieces  fasten  them  together  at  the  point  A  then  we 
have  two  legs  of  the  level,  AB  and  AC.  Now  take  the  third 
piece  and  use  as  the  crossbar,  DE.  Fasten  the  piece  DE 
to  AC  at  about  D,  bolt  so  as  to  permit  it  to  work  easily. 
Now  at  F  securely  place  a  spirit  level,  such  as  you 
can  get  from  almost  any  hardware  store  for  10  cents. 


32  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Bring  DE,  at  E  end,  to  a  point  on  leg  AB,  where  the 
spirit  level  indicates  level;  then  mark  or  put  a  hole 
through  both  for  bolt  to  work  in.  This  hole  on  AB  leg  we 
call  zero,  which  means  level.  Now  we  wish  to  make  a 
scale  that  will  enable  us  to  run  a  terrace  having  a  fall 
anywhere  from  an  inch  to  four  inches.  Let  some  one  raise 
the  foot  of  AB  one  inch  and  lower  crossbar  DE  until  level; 
then  put  a  hole  through  AB  leg,  and  call  this  hole  No.  1. 
Now  raise  foot  of  AB  two  inches  and  put  another  hole  in 
AB  leg  and  call  it  No.  2,  and  so  on  until  we  make  our  scale 
to  four  or  five  inches.  The  half-inch  is  then  gotten  by  di- 
viding the  distance  between  holes  and  numbering  halves. 
Now  we  have  an  instrument  made  that  should  not  cost 


Meecham's  "A"  Level. 

more  than  50  cents  at  the  outside,  and  will,  if  properly 
handled,  suffice  for  most  of  this  kind  of  work. 

"In  terracing  a  field  start  about  three 'feet  from  the  top 
of  the  hill,  and  begin  to  lay  off  the  first  terrace.  Usually 
about  one  or  two  inches  fall  to  the  rod  ^jill  be  sufficient. 
Try  to  put  the  second  terrace  so  that  it  will  be  about  three 
to  four  feet  lower  than  the  first,  and  so  on  down  the  hill 
until  the  whole  field  is  terraced.  Now,  if  a  field  has  a 
swag  about  the  center  and  water  collects  from  both  direc- 
tions in  this  swag,  to  avoid  this  begin  the  terrace  in  the 
swag  and  go  both  ways,  providing  there  is  a  good  outlet 
at  each  end.  Lay  off  the  terrace,  giving  one  to  two  inches 
fall,  as  desired,  by  fastening  the  cross-bar  DE  at  E  in  the 
hole  giving  the  fall  desired.  Start  at  the  point  we  have 
selected  to  begin,  and  let  the  short  leg,  or  the  leg  with  the 


Clearing  Sage  Brush  Land  33 

scale  on  it,  be  up-hill.  The  place  for  the  terrace  is  found 
by  raising  the  foot  of  the  instrument  up  or  down  hill  until 
the  proper  level  is  obtained,  then  let  the  boy  carrying  pegs 
stick  one  at  the  front  end  of  the  level;  then  go  with  the 
instrument  to  that  point,  and  repeat  same  operation  until 
€f.\\  the  terraces  are  laid  off.  When  you  come  to  a  gully 
make  half  sets  with  the  instrument  and  set  up-grade  stakes 
to  tell  how  high  to  build  the  banks  to  prevent  breaking 
over  by  heavy  rains.  Now  walk  back  over  the  line  of 
stakes  and  when  a  place  is  found  where  there  is  too  short 
a  turn  in  the  terrace,  straighten  a  little  or  give  a  more 
gentle  curve  by  moving  the  upper  stakes  a  little  down 
hill;  never  move  lower  stakes  uphill. 

"After  the  terrace  has  been  staked  out  a  furrow  can  be 
run  connecting  the  stakes.  If  desired,  the  terrace  can  be 
listed  up  by  throwing  several  furrows  together  and  the 
trees  planted  on  the  terrace.  In  planting  orchards  on  con- 
tours it  is  impossible  to  have  the  trees  line-up  as  they 
would  do  on  even  land.  The  first  row  is  set  by  simply 
spacing  the  trees  along  the  contour  at  the  regular  distance 
desired.  The  second  row  is  set  by  alternating,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  the  trees  with  those  in  the  first  row.  As 
the  work  of  setting  proceeds  the  trees  in  each  row  will  be 
alternated  with  those  in  the  row  preceding  it.  On  account 
of  the  variability  of  slope  it  will  be  found  impossible  to 
exactly  alternate  the  trees.  Occasionally  a  tree  will  have 
to  be  shifted  one  way  or  the  other,  or  one  left  out,  in  order 
to  keep  the  spaces  between  the  trees  fairly  uniform." 

In  irrigated  sections  land  can  be  planted  in  contours 
and  terraced,  with  the  irrigation  ditch  flowing  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  terrace.  This  will  let  the  water  percolate 
through  the  soil  to  best  advantage.  In  case  the  hillside  is 
long  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  water  the  lowermost  rows 
as  they  will  sub-irrigate. 

Clearing  Sage  Brush  Land 

The  method  adopted  by  Western  farmers  in  clearing 
their  land  of  sage  brush  varies  a  good  deal  with  the  sec- 


S4  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

tion  of  the  country,  and  the  means  that  may  be  at  hand. 
It  also  varies  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  with  the  condition 
of  the  land,  whether  the  brush  is  thick  or  scattering,  and 
whether  the  brush  is  large  or  small  and  whether  the  soil 
is  dry  or  wet  at  the  time  the  clearing  is  to  be  done.  One 
of  the  commonest  methods  consists  in  what  is  known  as 
the  "railing  and  raking"  system.  This  consists  in  dragging 
a  heavy  railroad  rail  back  and  forth  over  the  land,  mash- 
ing down  the  brush  and  pulling  out  more  or  less  of  it. 

These  rail  drags  are  generally  home-made  affairs,  con- 
sisting of  a  10x12  timber  that  may  be  about  12  feet  long, 
to  the  edge  of  which  is  bolted  the  railroad  rail  or  a  heavy 
iron  plate  that  is  flat  and  the  edge  of  which  can  be  drawn 
down  and  sharpened  to  a  cutting  edge.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  timber  fasten  a  little  platform  supported  on 
shoes  so  that  the  front  edge  of  the  rail  will  dip  forward 
and  not  slip  over  the  brush  without  mashing  it  down  or 
pulling  it  out. 

A  lever  can  be  conveniently  arranged  on  the  back  of 
the  frame  so  as  to  lift  the  cutting  edge  and  let  it  free  itself 
when  clogged  with  brush.  It  will  take  four  or  six  horses 
to  pull  such  a  drag,  although  this  will  depend  largely  on 
the  condition  of  the  soil  and  the  brush,  and  the  size  of  the 
horses. 

The  land  will  have  to  be  gone  over  several  times  in 
different  directions  with  such  a  drag  to  get  the  brush  loos- 
ened up,  and  when  this  is  done  the  brush  is  gathered  into 
windrows  by  means  of  a  rake.  This  rake  can  be  made 
from  a  heavy  piece  of  timber  in  which  steel  teeth  about 
two  inches  wide  and  half  an  inch  thick  are  placed  about 
six  inches  apart  in  the  timber.  This  rake  should  be  ar- 
ranged to  dump  when  it  gets  clogged.  With  this  rake, 
drag  the  brush  into  windrows  and  set  on  fire.  Any  brush 
that  remains  will  need  to  be  grubbed  out  with  a  grubbing 
hoe. 

Where  the  sage  brush  is  small  and  scattering  and  the 
soil  is  not  too  hard  and  dry  the  brush  may  be  plowed  out. 
The  plow  for  this  purpose  should  be  a  14  or  16-inch  plow 
having  the  mould  board  removed,  and  using  nothing  but 


What  Kind  of  Nursery  Stock  to  Plant  35 

the  share  and  land  side.  The  share  will  need  to  be  kept 
sharp  and  possibly  have  to  be  drawn  down  a  little  so  as 
to  hug  the  ground  better.  After  the  land  has  been  plowed 
the  brush  can  be  dragged  out  with  a  rake  into  windrows 
for  burning,  and  if  the  brush  is  not  too  heavy  an  ordinary 
sulky  rake  is  very  satisfactory. 

Land  which  is  cleared  from  sage  brush  by  grubbing  is 
difficult  to  plow  and  harrow  because  of  the  roots  that  are 
in  the  soil.  These  may  be  so  numerous  in  some  fields  that 
it  will  be  necessary  to  rake  them  up  and  burn. 

What  Kind  of  Nursery  Stock  to  Plant 

There  is  always  more  or  less  uncertainty  in  the  minds 
of  the  inexperienced  fruit  growers  as  to  the  kind  of  nur- 
sery stock  to  buy.  It  always  pays  to  get  the  best,  and  if 
the  planter  is  uncertain  whether  to  buy  one-year-old  stuff 
instead  of  two-year-old  trees  of  the  same  variety  it  will 
pay  to  write  to  your  state  experiment  station,  or  to  The 
Fruit-Grower,  and  find  out.  The  tendency  is  now  for  fruit 
growers  to  prefer  the  one-year  trees,  rather  than  trees  that 
are  older.  There  are  a  number  of  advantages  in  this,  as 
the  trees  are  smaller  and  more  easily  handled,  and  the 
head  has  not  been  formed,  leaving  it  possible  to  head  the 
tree  just  at  the  height  the  orchard  man  wants  it.  In  the 
Middle  West  and  Western  states  a  low-headed  tree  is  most 
desired,  as  it  facilitates  all  of  the  operations  of  caring  for 
the  trees  throughout  their  life.  In  the  Eastern  states  it 
has  been  the  custom  to  head  the  trees  high,  often  times 
above  the  head  of  the  average  man.  It  is  a  hard  job  to 
pick  the  fruit  off  of  such  trees,  especially  while  they  are 
young.  But  in  general  the  trees  of  the  Eastern  states 
seem  to  be  longer  lived  than  the  Western,  and  when  these 
trees  reach  the  age  of  forty  years  their  lateral  branches 
have  so  spread  out  that  they  hang  down  within  easy  reach, 
although  the  tops  are  high  in  the  air. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  buyer  orders  one-year- 
old  trees,  and  when  the  order  is  delivered  he  has  two-year- 
old  trees,  the  side  branches  of  which  have  been  carefully 
removed,  leaving  a  whip  that  looks  quite  like  a  one-year- 


36  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

old  tree.  Such  trees  cannot  be  handled  to  advantage,  for 
as  a  rule  they  must  be  headed  very  much  too  high  on  ac- 
count of  the  lower  limbs  having  been  cut  off,  the  very 
limbs  that  the  orchard  man  wanted  to  form  the  head. 

It  does  not  pay  to  buy  trees  just  because  they  are 
cheap.  Good  trees  cost  money  to  grow,  and  the  buyer 
must  expect  to  have  to  pay  a  good  round  price  for  good 
trees.  Cheap  trees,  cheap  just  because  the  nurseryman 
wants  to  get  rid  of  them,  are  too  many  times  fit  only  for 
the  scrap  pile.  Buy  nothing  but  good  trees  and  then  in- 
sist on  having  that  kind.  If  you  can  visit  the  nursery  and 
pick  out  your  trees,  so  much  the  better. 

Time  to  Plant 

Fruit  trees  can  be  set  out  in  either  the  late  fall  or  early 
spring  months.  In  the  Western  states  spring  planting  is 
preferred,  as  the  soil  is  then  in  much  better  condition  and 
more  easily  worked  than  in  the  fall.  But  in  the  rest  of  the 
country  the  land  is  generally  in  good  shape  in  the  late  .fall, 
unless  excessively  wet  or  unusually  dry. 

Fall  planting  has  the  advantage  of  getting  the  trees 
into  their  new  location  with  the  least  amount  of  time  ^n 
storage,  and  trees  set  out  in  the  fall  will  make  some  root 
growth  during  the  winter  and  be  in  good  shape  to  start 
into  growth  in  the  spring.  There  is  generally  more  time 
for  planting  in  the  fall  than  in  the  spring  and  the  work  can 
be  done  in  better  shape. 

When  the  planting  must  be  deferred  until  spring  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  trees  are  set  out  at  the  earliest 
possible  date.  In  rare  instances  it  happens  that  the  trees 
have  started  into  growth  slightly  at  the  time  of  planting. 
Such  condition  is  not  serious,  provided  the  trees  have  not 
been  allowed  to  make  a  growth  of  a  few  inches  before 
being  planted.  In  any  event  it  is  always  necessary  to 
prune  the  tree  back  somewhat  at  the  time  it  is  set.  This 
is  done  in  order  to  equalize  the  balance  between  the  roots 
and  the  top.  In  digging  the  trees  from  the  nursery  the 
greater  portion  of  the  root  system  is  removed,  and  if  the 
trees  are  planted  without  an  equal  reduction  of  the  top 


How  to  Plant  a  Tree  37 

the  roots  will  not  be  able  to   supply  the  large  top  with 
crude  sap,  and  the  trees  will  not  make  as  strong  a  growth. 

The  amount  of  cutting  back  of  the  tops  that  is  neces^ 
sary  at  the  time  a  tree  is  set  depends  largely  on  the  age  of 
the  tree,  the  kind,  whether  peach,  apple,  plum,  etc.  Peach 
trees  are  generally  cut  back  to  a  whip;  two-year-old  ap- 
ples are  usually  shortened  back  not  more  than  one-half; 
pears,  plums,  cherries,  etc.,  when  two-year-old  stock  is 
used,  are  cut  back  about  one-third,  and  where  one-year-old 
whips  are  used,  the  cutting  back  should  as  a  rule  be  about 
one-third  of  the  length  of  the  tree. 

How  to  Plant  a  Tree 

Many  persons  inexperienced  in  handling  trees  lose  a 
number  of  trees  in  setting  an  orchard  because  of  their  lack 
of  skill  or  acquaintance  with  handling  such  plants.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  from  the  time  the  trees  leave 
the  soil  of  the  nursery  until  they  are  firmly  planted  in  the 
orchard,  the  roots  should  be  exposed  to  the  air  as  little 
as  possible,  and  especially  to  air  that  is  moving  rapidly, 
or  which  is  dry.  Trees  should  not  be  left  with  their  roots 
exposed  to  the  sun  or  wind  any  longer  than  can  possibly 
be  avoided.  When  waiting  to  be  planted  they  should  be 
heeled  in,  that  is,  have  their  roots  covered  with  moist  soil, 
and  should  be  taken  out  only  as  actually  needed  for  im- 
mediate planting.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  transport  a 
number  of  trees  from  the  heeling-in  grounds  to  the  or- 
chard, it  is  best  to  pack  the  trees  in  a  tight  wagon  box, 
mixing  the  roots  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  wet  straw. 
Small  quantities  of  trees  may  be  placed  in  a  barrel  contain- 
ing a  little  water.  In  the  Western  states  it  is  a  common 
practice  to  load  the  trees  into  a  barrel  filled  with  water  and 
then  as  a  tree  is  planted  to  pour  a  little  of  the  water  around 
the  roots  of  the  tree  before  the  hole  is  filled  with  soil. 

The  hole  that  is  dug  for  the  tree  should  be  large 
enough  so  that  the  roots  may  be  spread  out  naturally, 
without  any  crowding.  These  holes  need  not  be  very  wide 
but  need  to  be  deep  enough  to  allow  the  tree  to  be  set  a 
little  deeper  than  it  stood  in  the  nursery.  All  of  the  long- 


38  The   Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

est  roots  need  to  be  shortened  in  to  about  six  inches  and 
cut  with  a  smooth  clean  cut.  Any  roots  that  are  broken 
or  bruised  need  to  be  removed,  and  all  cut  surfaces  need 
to  be  made  smooth  so  they  will  heal  quickly. 

Filling  in  the  soil  about  the  trees  is  a  very  important 
step  in  tree  planting.  To  get  the  best  results  the  soil  must 
be  packed  closely  about  the  roots,  so  that  there  are  no  air 
holes  or  crevices.  The  best  way  to  do  this  is  with  the 
hand.  When  the  tree  is  in  place  spread  the  roots  out 
and  throw  a  shovelful  of  soil  over  them,  shake  the  tree  up 
and  down  several  times  and  then  work  it  into  the  crev- 
ices between  the  roots  with  the  fingers.  Throw  in  a  little 
more  soil  and  work  into  the  remaining  crevices,  and 
then  with  the  feet  tramp  the  soil  solid.  Throw  in 
more  soil  and  tramp,  repeating  until  the  hole  is  full  and 
the  dirt  about  the  tree  is  packed  down  solid  and  tight. 
Moving  the  tree  up  and  down  while  the  earth  is  being 
thrown  in  will  assist  materially  in  avoiding  air  holes  and 
in  bringing  the  soil  in  close  contact  with  the  roots.  There 
is  little  danger  of  packing  the  soil  too  tightly  about  the 
roots.  The  greatest  danger  is  in  not  getting  it  packed 
tightly  enough  and  leaving  air  holes  that  will  let  the  roots 
dry  out  and  the  tree  die. 

The  trees  should  be  set  just  a  little  deeper  than  they 
stood  when  in  the  nursery,  although  not  over  an  inch 
deeper.  Setting  too  deep  is  as  dangerous  as  not  setting 
deep  enough.  The  best  guide  is  the  line  marking  the 
change  in  color  of  the  bark  at  the  crown  where  the  tree 
enters  the  ground. 

After  the  tree  has  been  firmly  packed  in  the  hole  throw 
an  inch  or  so  of  loose  earth  over  the  packed  soil  to  serve 
as  a  dust  mulch  and  prevent  from  drying  out.  Watering 
at  the  time  the  tree  is  planted  is  not  necessary  in  the  East- 
ern or  Middle  Western  states,  but  in  the  semi-arid  country, 
where  the  trees  cannot  be  irrigated  immediately  after  be- 
ing planted,  it  is  often  advisable  to  pour  a  bucketful  of 
water  about  the  newly  planted  tree.  This  should  be  done 
before  the  hole  is  filled  with  soil,  and  the  water  allowed 
to  percolate  away.  Then  fill  up  with  the  dry  soil  and  do 


Use  of  Fillers  39 

not  pack  the  surface,  but  rather  let  this  soil  lie  loose  and 
prevent  the  water  from  evaporating.  A  dust  mulch  will 
very  effectively  conserve  the  moisture  in  the  soil  for  the 
use  of  the  tree. 

Use  of  Fillers 

The  use  of  "fillers,"  or  temporary  trees,  in  an  orchard 
is  not  always  to  be  recommended.  Such  trees  can  in  many 
instances  serve  a  useful  purpose,  but  they  too  often  be- 
come permanent.  After  they  come  into  bearing  the 


o      o      o      o      o      o      o 

0000000 

o»o»o»o«o«o«o 

o«o«o»o«o»o«o 

Diagram  of  an  orchard  planted  with  "fillers."  The  black 
spots  represent  the  temporary  trees.  In  the  upper  portion  of 
the  diagram  the  fillers  are  in  the  centers  of  the  squares, 
making  the  "quincunx"  system  of  planting.  In  the  lower 
rows  the  fillers  are  in  the  rows  of  permanent  trees. 

owner  always  wants  just  one  more  crop  from  them  before 
they  are  removed.  Years  pass  by  in  this  way  and  the 
orchard  becomes  so  crowded  that  the  yield  from  all  the 
trees  is  less  than  from  what  the  permanent  trees  would  be 
if  the  fillers  were  out. 

When  the  kinds  of  trees  to  be  used  as  fillers  are  careful- 
ly selected  and  then  removed  at  the  right  time  they  can  be 
made  profitable.  Peaches  can  sometimes  be  used  as  fillers 
in  an  apple  orchard,  if  the  soil  and  climate  are  suitable. 


40  The   Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Pears  are  not  advisable  as  fillers,  especially  in  an  apple 
orchard,  on  account  of  their  susceptibility  to  fire  blight, 
which  can  be  communicated  to  the  apple  trees. 

Quick  maturing  varieties  of  apples  make  the  best  fillers 
in  an  apple  orchard,  and  especially  so  if  the  fillers  have 
an  upright  habit,  such  as  Missouri  Pippin,  Wagener,  or 
Rome  Beauty.  Such  kinds  can  be  handled  to  advantage 
in  an  orchard  laid  out  on  the  rectangular  plan,  with  the 
filler  in  the  center  of  the  square.  This  will  double  the 
number  of  trees  per  acre,  and  give  each  tree  the  maximum 
of  room.  It  is  not  so  easy  to  plant  fillers  to  advantage 
when  the  orchard  is  laid  out  on  the  hexagonal  plan  with- 
out crowding  the  trees. 

A  common  and  satisfactory  method  of  arranging  fillers 
is  to  set  the  permanent  apple  trees  thirty  feet  apart,  with 
a  filler  midway  between  the  trees  in  one  direction  only. 
This  will  put  the  trees  15x30  feet  apart. 

While  good  returns  can  be  made  from  the  fillers  in 
an  orchard,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  practically  as  good  re- 
turns can  be  made  by  using  crops  of  other  kinds.  In 
small  orchards  some  of  the  small  fruits,  such  as  straw- 
berries, blackberries  or  currants  are  good  money  makers. 
In  large  orchards  it  is  better  to  grow  some  kind  of  cover 
crop  and  work  towards  building  up  a  large  framework  and 
strong  trees  that  will  be  heavy  bearers  when  they  come 
into  fruiting,  rather  than  to  try  to  get  an  extra  amount  of 
fruit  from  the  temporary  trees. 

One  of  the  great  dangers  of  intermixed  planting  is  that 
nine  persons  out  of  ten  will  not  take  the  fillers  out  when 
they  ought  to.  There  is  danger  in  it  to  the  whole  enter- 
prise and  the  system  should  be  recommended  very  guard- 
edly, if  at  all.  Peaches  should  not  be  planted  among  apples 
as  a  rule.  It  is  better  to  stick  to  one  kind  of  fruit. 

Orchard  Tillage 

The  style  of  tilling  used  in  the  Eastern  and  Western 
fruit  sections  are  vastly  different.  In  the  Western  sec- 
tions, where  irrigation  is  practiced,  clean  cultivation  is  in- 


Orchard  Tillage  41 

variably  the  rule,  and  the  soil  is  often  cultivated  continu- 
ously year  after  year  until  every  trace  of  humus  has  been 
consumed  and  the  soil  bakes  after  each  irrigation  so  hard 
that  it  takes  a  good  sharp  pick  to  make  a  hole  in  it.  In 
the  Eastern  states,  where  rainfall  is  abundant,  it  is  a  com- 
mon practice  to  sow  the  orchard  down  to  grass,  and  allow 
it  to  remain  in  sod  for  a  number  of  years.  Either  prac- 
tice alone  is  not  the  ideal  which  the  modern  orchardist 
should  follow. 

The  excessive  cultivation  as  practiced  in  the  irrigated 
sections  burns  the  humus  out  of  the  soil,  making  it  very 
difficult  to  work  in  the  course  of  a  few  years.  Under  the 
cloudless  skies  and  burning  sun  of  those  regions  the  trees 
are  in  a  continual  glare  of  light,  and  the  reflected  light 
from  the  soil  has  a  tendency  to  cause  more  or  less  sun 
scalding  on  the  trunks  and  lower  limbs  of  the  trees.  The 
continual  cultivation  not  only  wears  out  the  soil,  but  wears 
out  the  trees  as  well.  The  tendency  of  trees  in  the  irri- 
gated sections  of  the  West  is  to  overbear,  and  the  con- 
tinuous cultivation  stimulates  this  condition. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  sod  mulch,  or  as  too  many  times 
happens,  the  weed  mulch,  of  the  rainy  sections,  harbors 
a  multitude  of  orchard  pests  that  sooner  or  later  bring  de- 
struction to  the  trees,  unless  means  are  taken  to  prevent 
their  depredations.  The  ideal  system  of  cultivation  for 
any  orchard,  either  East  or  West,  is  to  combine  the  tillage 
with  a  cover  crop.  Stirring  the  soil  is  a  necessity,  not 
only  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  physical  condition 
of  the  soil,  but  for  liberating  the  fertility.  In  soils  that 
are  plowed  early  in  the  spring  air  is  admitted  and  the  soil 
warmed  up  and  drained  of  excess  moisture  through  evap- 
oration. In  summer  the  plowed  layer  serves  as  a  means 
of  preventing  the  evaporation  of  moisture  that  is  deeper 
down  in  the  soil,  by  breaking  the  capilarity.  It  also  in- 
creases the  water  holding  capacity  of  the  soil.  By  increas- 
ing the  moisture  in  the  soil  decomposition  of  the  organic 
materials  is  hastened,  and  their  fertility  made  available 
for  the  use  of  the  plants. 

The  exact  manner  of  cultivation  in  an  orchard  will  be 
governed  largely  by  the  kind  of  trees  and  the  location. 


42 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


It  is  best  in  most  instances  to  put  the  young  orchard  into 
a  crop  of  some  sort  which  will  necessitate  the  cultivation 
of  the  land.  Crops  like  corn,  cotton,  potatoes,  strawber- 
ries, cantaloupes,  or  other  crops  of  that  nature  make  ex- 
cellent crops  in  a  newly  planted  orchard.  These  crops  are 
temporary,  and  are  planted  for  the  profit  that  can  be  ob- 
tained from  them.  Their  culture  is  intensive  and  requires 


An  Orchard  in  Clean  Cultivation. 


a  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil,  and  these  are  just  the  con- 
ditions which  are  needed  for  the  young  trees.  During  the 
first  few  years  of  an  orchard  the  effort  should  be  directed 
along  the  line  of  promoting  as  much  wood  growth  as  pos- 
sible, in  order  to  get  a  large  framework  for  the  future  pro- 
duction of  fruit.  A  tree  that  is  starved  and  stunted  in  its 
early  life  will  not  make  a  productive  tree  when  it  comes 
into  bearing. 


Orchard  Tillage      *  43 

Where  strawberries  arc  grown  between  young  trees 
they  will  occupy  the  ground  for  at  least  three  years,  after 
which  time  they  should  be  plowed  under,  and  the  land 
planted  to  clover  or  some  other  legume.  This  is  for  the 
purpose  of  restoring  nitrogen  to  the  soil  and  stimulating 
the  wood  growth  of  the  trees.  Where  corn,  cotton  or 
other  "hoed"  crop  is  grown,  the  land  will  be  occupied  by 
any  one  crop  no  longer  than  one  year.  It  is  considered 
to  be  the  best  practice  not  to  plant  the  same  kind  of  crop 
in  the  orchard  for  more  than  two  years  in  succession.  In 
fact  soil  experts  will  advise  that  any  particular  crop  occupy 
the  land  but  one  year  and  then  be  followed  by  a  crop  of 
a  different  sort.  This  is  because  the  soil  quickly  becomes 
impoverished  where  one  kind  of  crop  is  repeatedly  grown 
on  the  same  area.  In  the  young  orchard  this  is  especially 
true,  as  the  trees  are  to  remain  for  many  years  and  the 
soil's  fertility  must  not  be  reduced.  A  good  rotation  of 
crops  in  a  young  orchard  is  to  plant  cotton  or  corn  the 
first  season  and  follow  with  potatoes  the  next  year,  fol- 
lowing it  the  next  season  with  a  legume  of  some  kind. 

Vegetables  of  all  kinds  may  be  grown  in  a  young  or- 
chard in  place  of  the  crops  mentioned,  and  will  serve  well 
in  keeping  the  ground  of  the  orchard  well  stirred  and  the 
trees  growing  thriftily.  Sugar  beets  are  extensively  used 
in  the  irrigated  districts,  but  are  not  always  desirable  be- 
cause of  the  late  watering  that  is  needed  to  get  the  beets 
to  mature.  This  late  watering  induces  late  growth  in  the 
trees  and  makes  them  liable  to  winter  killing. 

Under  no  condition  should  small  grain  be  planted  in  an 
orchard,  as  it  will  not  permit  of  cultivation,  and  cultiva- 
tion is  necessary  in  a  young  orchard  for  reasons  which 
have  been  mentioned.  This  statement  applies  to  the  grow- 
ing of  a  grain  crop  that  is  to  be  allowed  to  reach  maturity 
and  be  harvested  either  as  grain  or  hay.  Rye,  wheat,  oats 
and  buckwheat  are  frequently  planted  in  an  orchard,  but 
they  are  used  altogether  for  green  manures  and  under 
the  best  systems  of  culture  are  not  allowed  to  remain  for 
more  than  a  few  weeks,  or  over  winter  at  the  longest. 

In  plowing  the  ground  in  a  young  orchard,  the  plows 
should  be  run  six  or  eight  inches  deep,  so  as  to  provide  a 


44  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

deep  covering  of  plowed  soil,  and  to  cut  the  surface  roots 
of  the  new  trees,  and  make  them  penetrate  into  deeper 
soil  where  they  will  be  cooler  during  the  hot  summer 
weather  and  away  from  the  freezing  of  the  winter's  cold 
and  into  a  zone  of  more  regular  supply  of  moisture. 

When  it  comes  to  the  bearing  orchard,  no  crops  are 
grown  to  be  removed.  If  any  crop  is  grown  it  is  for  the 
purpose  of  being  turned  under  and  adding  to  the  fertility 
and  humus  supply  of  the  soil.  It  takes  an  immense  amount 
of  soil  fertility  to  provide  a  bearing  orchard  with  the 
foliage  and  wood  each  year,  and  it  takes  a  still  larger  sup- 
ply to  furnish  the  fruit.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  too 
much  to  ask  the  orchard  ground  to  produce  a  crop  of  some 
other  sort  when  that  crop  returns  nothing  to  the  land. 

The  bearing  orchard  does  best  when  the  soil  is  plowed 
in  the  spring  as  soon  as  it  can  be  worked,  and  then 
kept  in  cultivation  until  at  least  mid-summer,  when  a  crop 
of  some  sort  is  planted  to  serve  as  a  shade  or  cover  crop. 
Professors  Whipple  and  Paddock  have  pointed  out  to  the 
orchardists  of  the  irrigated  sections  of  the  West  the  impor- 
tance of  growing  a  shade  crop  in  their  orchards,  not  alone 
for  the  improvement  it  will  produce  in  the  physical  condi- 
tion of  the  soil,  but  to  shade  the  ground  and  prevent 
reflection  of  the  sunlight  and  scalding  the  branches. 

WTith  the  system  of  tillage  practiced  by  Western  fruit 
raisers  the  humus  supply  of  the  soil  is  depleted  quickly, 
and  because  of  this  becomes  light  colored.  Running  the 
irrigation  ditches  close  to  the  trees  on  hot  sunny  days  in 
summer  has  caused  the  death  of  many  trees  by  sun-scald- 
ing, because  of  the  light  reflected  from  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  the  ditches.  The  shade  crops  are  planted  early  in 
the  summer  and  serve  to  lessen  the  reflection  from  the  soil, 
and  from  the  water  in  the  ditches. 

Stirring  the  soil  by  plowing  or  discing  has  the  effect 
of  stimulating  wood  growth.  If  the  cultivation  is  con- 
tinued too  late  in  the  summer  there  is  a  possibility  of  the 
trees  continuing  to  grow  so  late  that  they  will  go  into 
winter  with  wood  that  has  not  been  properly  ripened,  and 
may  in  consequence  not  be  able  to  stand  the  cold.  With 


Cover  Crops  45 

trees  that  are  easily  attacked  by  fire  blight,  as  pears  and 
quinces,  soft  wood,  such  as  is  produced  by  continuous  cul- 
tivation, is  not  desired,  because  of  the  immense  damage 
that  can  be  caused  by  blight.  Pear  orchards  are  frequently 
planted  to  a  permanent  sod  early  in  the  life  of  the  orchard, 
simply  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  very  soft  wood. 

Orchards  need  to  be  plowed  early  in  the  spring  and  cul- 
tivated until  mid-summer  when  they  are  sowed  down  to  a 
cover  crop  that  is  to  remain  on  the  soil  during  the  winter 
to  be  turned  under  the  next,  spring.  In  the  case  of  dry 
seasons  when  the  normal  precipitation  is  scarce,  tillage 
throughout  the  summer  will  conserve  the  moisture  in  the 
soil,  and  by  plowing  the  ground  late  in  the  fall  and  allow- 
ing to  remain  rough  all  winter  a  still  larger  amount  of 
water  can  be  stored  up  in  the  soil  than  if  left  smooth  and 
level. 

Cover  Crops 

Cover  crop,  called  also  green  manures  and  shade  crops, 
arc  such  crops  as  are  grown  in  the  orchard  for  the  purpose 
of  clothing  the  surface  of  the  soil  during  late  summer  and 
winter  months.  They  are  used  to  protect  the  soil  from 
washing  during  the  winter  rains,  and  for  this  reason  are 
always  to  be  advised  for  orchards  that  are  on  steep,  hilly 
land.  In  the  arid  section  of  the  West  they  serve  to  cover 
the  soil  and  protect  it  from  the  sun,  thereby  guarding 
somewhat  against  sun-scalding  of  the  trees.  They  increase 
the  humus  supply  when  plowed  under,  and  make  available 
or  conserve  the  mineral  elements  of  fertility  that  might 
otherwise  be  leached  out  of  the  soil.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  soluble  nitrates.  When  some  sort  of  legumi- 
nous plant  is  used  for  a  cover  crop  it  adds  nitrogen  to 
the  soil. 

Cover  crops  increase  the  water  holding  capacity  of  the 
'soil  through  the  addition  of  humus,  and  thereby  improve 
the  tilth  and  prevent  the  puddling  and  baking  of  the  soil. 
On  this  account  alone  cover  crops,  or  rather  shade  crops, 
are  useful  in  the  orchards  of  the  irrigated  sections.  There 


46  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

the  custom  has  been  of  continuous  cultivation,  with  the 
result  that  the  tilth  of  the  soil  is  ruined  and  that  it  bakes 
badly  after  each  irrigation. 

Cover  crops  are  of  three  kinds:  (1)  Those  grown  in 
seasons  between  other  crops;  (2)  those  which  occupy  the 
land  for  one  or  more  seasons  before  they  are  plowed  un- 
der; (3)  those  which  are  sown  late  in  the  season  for  the 
purpose  of  protecting  the  soil  during  the  winter. 

In  general  orchard  practice  cover  crops  are  sown  late 
in  the  summer  and  allowed  to  remain  throughout  the 
winter  when  they  are  to  be  turned  under  the  following 
spring  and  become  a  green  manure.  For  such  purposes 
a  number  of  different  kinds  of  crops  are  used,  depending 
largely  on  the  soil,  climate  and  the  needs  in  hand. 

Winter  rye  is  one  of  the  most  useful  cover  crops  for 
the  orchard.  It  may  be  sown  at  any  time  from  the  mid- 
dle of  August  until  November,  and  grows  all  winter  where 
the  climate  is  not  too  severe,  resuming  growth  again  early 
in  the  spring.  It  is  very  efficient  in  gathering  the  soluble 
nitrates  that  might  be  leached  from  the  soil.  It  is  especi- 
ally well  suited  for  light  soils. 

Buckwheat  and  oats  are  sometimes  used,  especially  in 
the  Northern  states,  but  they  are  killed  by  the  winter 
weather  and  need  to  be  planted  early  in  order  to  get  a 
good  cover  over  the  soil  before  winter. 

Winter  vetch  is  useful  on  the  medium  loamy  soils  and 
is  hardy  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts  in  well  drained 
locations.  It  is  a  legume,  and  consequently  increases  the 
nitrogen  supply  in  the  soil.  It  does  best  when  sown  with 
rye,  and  is  not  well  adapted  to  stand  hot  weather. 

Canada  field  peas  are  used  as  cover  crops  in  the  North- 
ern states,  and  in  the  higher  altitudes  of  the  West  where 
the  climate  is  cool.  They  are  very  effective  where  they 
thrive. 

Crimson  clover  is  useful  in  sections  where  it  will  do 
well  as  along  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  South 
of  Nfew  Jersey  it  is  hardy,  but  north  it  is  uncertain.  It  is 


Cover  Crops  47 

a  deep  rooting  legume,  which   opens  up  the  subsoil  and 
adds  nitrogen. 

The  common  red  and  mammoth  clover  are  used  very 
extensively  as  cover  crops,  although  they  require  the  use 
of  the  land  for  two  seasons.  They  are  deep  rooting,  gather 
nitrogen  from  the  air  and  are  hardy.  They  make  a  heavy 
growth  of  tops  and  generally  need  to  be  mown  during 
the  first  summer.  It  should  be  the  practice  in  most  cases 
where  clover  is  grown  for  a  cover  crop  to  not  remove  the 
hay,  but  allow  it  to  remain  in  the  orchard  where  cut  to 
add  to  the  humus  supply.  But  where  the  soil  is  already 
quite  well  supplied  with  humus  there  is  no  objection  to 
the  removal  of  the  hay.  The  clover  should  be  turned  under 
in  the  spring  of  the  third  year. 

Sweet  clover  is  used  in  a  small  way  in  some  parts  of 
the  country  as  a  cover  or  green  manuring  crop.  Alfalfa, 
however,  finds  a  much  wider  range  of  adaptability  and  is 
extensively  used  among  the  irrigated  orchards  of  the 
Western  states.  It  must  be  plowed  under  during  the 
second  year,  otherwise  the  roots  become  so  woody  as  to 
make  plowing  very  difficult. 

In  the  Southern  states  the  cowpea  takes  first  rank  as 
a  cover  crop  for  orchard  lands.  It  makes  a  rank  growth, 
roots  deeply  and  gathers  nitrogen  from  the  air.  It  is 
killed  by  the  first  frost,  but  its  coarse  herbage  makes  an 
excellent  ground  cover  during  the  winter.  It  can  be  sown 
late  in  August  and  still  make  a  good  cover  before  being 
killed  by  freezing  weather. 


48  The   Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


CHAPTER  II 


Orchard  Heating 

Every  orchardist  is  agreed  that  spraying  is  an  absolute 
necessity  in  order  to  produce  fruit  free  from  the  defects 
caused  by  insects  and  fungi.  Yet  spraying  as  a  commer- 
cial proposition  is  of  only  recent  adoption,  dating  no 
farther  back  than  1872,  when  Le  Baron,  the  state  entomol- 
ogist of  Illinois,  found  that  Paris  green  would  control  the 
potato  beetle.  Spraying  began  to  be  of  commercial  value 
in  1885  when  the  effectiveness  of  copper  sprays  was  dis- 
covered by  the  vineyardists  of  France.  Yet  there  is  a 
still  newer  practice,  viz:  orchard  heating,  which  is  bound 
to  take  rank  on  a  par  with  the  practice  of  spraying  as  a 
means  of  securing  crops  of  fruits  against  an  unfavorable 
environment. 

New  Idea 

Orchard  heating  as  a  commercial  proposition  is  of  very 
recent  origin,  although  for  many  years  fruit  men  and 
gardeners-  have  tried  various  plans  of  preventing  frost 
from  injuring  their  plants  and  blossoms.  Some  of  these 
attempts  was  by  keeping  the  trees  sprayed  during  the 
winter  with  whitewash,  under  the  belief  that  since  the 
whitewash  would  reflect  much  of  the  sun's  rays  the  wood 
of  the  trees  would  not  get  so  warm  during  sunshiny  days 
of  winter,  and  hence  retard  the  development  of  the  fruit 
buds.  However,  such  methods  in  practice  would  hold  the 
buds  back  for  only  three  or  four  days  behind  those  trees 
which  were  not  sprayed,  while  the  danger  period  in  spring 


•      A 
\ 


Influence  of  Environment  49 

would  probably  remain  for  as  much  as  a  month  or   six 
weeks. 

Another  method  which  had  some  advocates,  and  which 
is  still  practiced  in  some  sections,  although  with  but  little 
commercial  success,  is  the  mulching  of  the  ground  very 
heavily  in  late  spring  before  the  frost  leaves  the  soil. 
Another  plan  is  to  heap  the  snow  around  the  roots  and 
trunks  of  the  trees,  or,  as  one  fruit  grower  in  the  region 
of  the  Cascade  Mountains  has  done,  to  actually  haul  ice 
from  the  mountains  and  pack  it  around  the  trees  in  an 
effort  to  prevent  the  trees  from  starting  into  growth  in 
the  spring  until  after  the  danger  period  had  passed.  Such 
means,  however,  have  not  given  success,  for  the  reason 
that  the  branches  of*  a  plant  can  start  into  growth  inde- 
pendently of  root  action,  provided  the  branches  are  in  a 
suitable  temperature.  Any  person  can  prove  this  to  his 
own  satisfaction  by  pulling  the  branches  of  a  tree  or  vine 
into  a  warm  room  late  in  the  winter  and  blocking  up 
around  the  opening  through  which  it  is  passed  to  keep  out 
the  cold  air.  The  roots  may  be  frozen  solid,  but  in  the 
course  of  a  few  days  the  buds  will  start  into  growth,  and 
may  actually  come  into  blossom.  The  only  way  in  which 
a  mulch  packed  over  frozen  ground  to  prevent  its  thawing 
out  early,  or  storing  snow  and  ice  in  the  orchard  could 
effect  the  blooming  period  of  the  trees,  would  be  directly 
dependent  on  the  way  in  which  such  means  affected  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  surrounding  the  buds. 

Influence  of  Environment 

The  relation  which  any  district  will  bear  to  frostiness 
will  depend  to  a  great  extent  on  the  natural  surroundings. 
Nearness  to  large  bodies  of  water  has  a  great  influence  on 
frost,  and  some  sections,  even  though  they  are  far  north, 
have  very  mild  climates  and  with  a  minimum  of  frosty 
days*  in  late  spring.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  state  of 
Washington,  and  in  southern  British  Columbia,  the  climate 
is  mild,  considering  the  high  latitude,  due  to  the  influence 
of  the  chinook  winds  which  pass  over  the  region  directly 


50  The    Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

off  the  warm  waters  of  the  Japan  current  that  sweeps 
the  Pacific  coast.  The  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan 
has  a  warmer  climate  than  the  opposite  side,  on  account 
of  the  lake  currents  which  keep  open  water  on  the  eastern 
side  while  the  other  shore  is  ice  bound. 

On  account  of  the  movements  of  warm  currents  of  air 
oranges  are  being  grown  in  the  southeastern  corner  of 
North  Carolina,  two  hundred  miles  north  of  the  northern- 
most place  at  which  it  is  considered  safe  to  grow  this  fruit 
on  the  Atlantic  coast.  This  is  because  the  warm  waters 
of  the  gulf  stream  come  in  close  to  shore  at  this  portion  of 
the  coast  and  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  less  frosty  than 
farther  south. 

Natural  prominences,  such  as  high  bluffs  which  absorb 
the  heat  of  tiie  sun  during  the  day  and  then  radiate  it 
slowly  at  night  have  a  great  effect  in  ameliorating  the 
night  temperature  in  small  localities,  although  this  influ- 
ence cannot  be  counted  of  any  serious  value  in  protecting 
an  orchard  against  late  frosts  in  the  spring.  In  the  moun- 
tain sections  of  the  Western  states  districts  near  the 
mouths  of  great  canons  are  frequently  safe  from  serious 
damage  from  frost  in  late  spring  on  account  of  the  con- 
tinual breeze  which  flows  or  blows  out  of  the  canons  dur- 
ing the  night.  These  breezes  come  from  the  cooler  air 
which  surrounds  the  high  tops  of  the  mountains,  flowing 
down  their  sides  into  the  lower  grounds  in  the  valleys. 

While  natural  conditions  are  of  material  assistance, 
they  cannot  be  depended  upon  as  being  of  absolute  cer- 
tainty in  protecting  against  frost,  for  the  vagaries  of  air 
currents  and  frostless  belts  are  as  uncertain  as  the  flight 
of  a  bird.  In  many  fruit  producing  districts  there  are 
ardent  promoters  of  certain  areas  as  being  frostless,  be- 
cause of  some  natural  condition  which  provides  favorable 
air  currents  or  temperatures  at  critical  times.  However, 
it  may  be  but  a  short  time  until  those  conditions  change 
and  the  frostless  area  is  seriously  damaged  by  a  freeze. 
It  was  not  many  years  ago  that  the  orange  growers  in 
Florida  believed  that  the  southern  limit  of  frost  was  at 
the  northern  boundary  of  that  state.  However,  in  1895  it 


Influence  of  Environment 


51 


was  demonstrated  to  the  sorrow  and  dismay  of  thousands 
of  orange  men  that  even  half  way  down  the  peninsula  was 
not  safe  from  frost,  as  in  one  night  a  cold  blast  from  the 
north  came  and  the  "big  freeze"  on  which  the  pomologi- 


Troutman  Oil  Burning  Orchard  Heaters  Properly  Distributed. 

cal  chronology  of  Florida  is  founded,  made  hundreds  of 
families  homeless  and  hopeless.  In  every  fruit  district  in 
fact  it  is  expected  at  times  to  have  an  untimely  frost  cause 
damage  of  greater  or  less  extent  to  the  fruit  crops. 


52  The   Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

Water  as  an  Aid 

Water  has  often  been  used  as  a  means  of  preventing 
frost  to  plants,  through  the  large  amount  of  heat  which 
can  be  stored  up  in  it  to  be  liberated  more  slowly  in  the 
field.  In  the  irrigated  sections  of  the  West  this  method 
has  been  used  to  a  large  extent  in  some  districts,  although 
with  but  little  real  success.  Spraying  the  plants  with  a 
continuous  spray  of  water,  however,  has  proven  to  be 
satisfactory,  although  finding  little  application  just  yet  out- 
side of  the  garden.  That  this  system  can  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage though,  is  very  evident  in  some  sections  of  the 
South  where  truck  patches  and  orange  groves  are  provided 
with  an  overhead  irrigation  system,  in  which  the  water  is 
carried  at  a  high  pressure  and  is  applied  through  spray 
nozzles  located  at  intervals  of  a  few  feet  throughout  the 
length  of  the  pipe.  Celery  has  been  saved  in  this  manner 
when  the  temperature  reached  as  low  as  12  degrees.  Where 
a  grower  is  equipped  with  such  a  watering  system  it  is  a 
comparative!}^  simple  matter  to  provide  a  heating  device 
where  the  water  can  be  heated  as  it  is  run  through  the 
pipes  and  plants  be  safely  carried  through  a  very  hard 
freeze  with  entire  safety. 

Irrigation,  either  in  ditches  or  overhead,  cannot  be  re- 
tlied  on  at  all  times  as  providing  against  low  temperatures, 
and  either  system  has  many  disadvantages.  But  horticul- 
turists have  another  means  of  providing  against  frost  dam- 
age by  means  of  heating  the  air  in  the  orchard  or  garden 
by  means  of  numerous  small  fires.  In  the  commercial 
orchards  this  method  is  the  result  of  modern  ingenuity 
striving  to  overcome  some  of  the  enormous  losses  which 
fruit  growers  have  met  with  through  the  damage  wrought 
by  late  frosts  in  spring. 

Development  of   Modern   Frost   Fighting 

In  the  Yearbook  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  for  1909  Prof.  G.  B.  Brackett,  in  an  article  on 
"Prevention  of  Frost  Injury  to  Fruit  Crops,"  briefly  traces 
the  development  of  means  of  fighting  frosts.  One  of  the 


Development  of  Modern  Frost  Fighting  53 

early  methods  used  by  fruit  growers  to  protect  their  fruit 
from  injury  through  unfavorable  climatic  conditions,  was 
used  by  a  vineyardist  in  Austria,  who  resorted  to  the  use 
of  explosives  to  dispel  threatening  hail  storms.  The  region 
was  one  where  hail  storms  were  prevalent  and  wrought 
destruction  to  the  grape  crops.  Mr.  Albert  Stiger,  burgo- 
master, Windisch-Briestrits,  Austria,  owned  extensive  vine- 
yards, and  decided  to  drive  away  the  threatening  storms  by 
firing  small  charges  of  powder  from  wooden  mortars 
towards  the  storm  clouds.  These  explosions  had  a  ten- 
dency to  break  up  the  stratum  of  cold  air  and  prevent  its 
settling  in  the  low  ground.  The  experiments  were  con- 
tinued for  some  time  and  were  considered  as  successful. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  among  farmers  and  fruit  men 
that  injury  to  plants  after  a  frost  is  always  more  serious 
when  the  plants  are  allowred  to  thaw  out  rapidly.  This 
observation  led  to  many  early  experiments  in  devising 
means  of  shading  crops  so  as  to  guard  them  from  the 
early  morning  sun  following  the  spring  frosts.  Smudges 
of  many  kinds  were  used  for  this  purpose,  the  attempt 
being  to  make  an  artificial  cloud  over  the  orchard  to  shade 
the  crops  until  after  they  had  thawed  out  slowly.  Com- 
bustible matter  capable  of  producing  an  abundance  of  thick 
black  smoke  was  used  for  this  purpose.  Heaps  of  fuel  for 
this  purpose  were  scattered  through  the  fruit  plantation, 
and  at  sunrise  were  set  on  fire  to  form  a  veil  of  smoke 
over  the  orchard  to  protect  it  from  the  rays  of  the  sun, 
and  also  to  prevent  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  earth's 
surface;  thereby  maintaining  the  general  temperature  at  a 
point  which  would  counteract  the  effect  of  frost. 

A  gentleman  living  in  Bordeaux,  France,  invented  a 
process  of  making  thick  black  smoke  for  this  purpose. 
This  consisted  of  small  wooden  boxes,  open  at  the  top 
and  filled  with  a  compound  consisting  of  equal  parts  of 
resinous  and  earthy  substances  reduced  to  a  fine  powder 
and  compressed  into  a  compact  mass.  A  wick  was  placed 
in  the  center  of  the  mass  and. served  to  light  it.  The  boxes 
containing  this  mixture  were  made  of  pine  wood  and  were 
eight  inches  long  and  six  inches  square  and  were  placed 


54  The   Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

thirty  feet  apart  in  the  vineyard.  This  scheme  possibly  led 
to  the  various  smudging  devices  used  in  the  orange  grow- 
ing sections  of  this  country. 

Vapor  smudges  were  used  first  in  this  country  and 
accredited  to  a  California!!  named  Meacham.  Small  areas 
were  covered  with  wet  straw,  manure  and  cypress  brush, 
and  the  vapors  furnished  by  these  piles,  when  set  on  fire, 
together  with  the  vapor  from  evaporating  pans,  was  cal- 
culated to  furnish  sufficient  vapor  to  cover  the  desired 
areas.  This  method  gave  little  satisfaction,  for  several 
reasons.  It  necessitated  the  co-operation  of  every  land 
owner  in  the  region  and  the  vapors  even  then  would  rap- 
idly disappear  into  space.  The  vapor,  too,  was  lifted  high 
above  the  ground  by  the  cold  air  flowing  over  the  surface 
from  higher  altitudes. 

The  fruit  growers  of  California  seem  to  have  been  the 
most  active  in  this  early  work  of  protecting  against  frost 
injury  to  their  fruits.  Edward  Copley  is  credited  with 
having  invented  a  device  for  burning  coal  in  baskets  to  be 
scattered  through  the  orchard  fastened  to  the  limbs  of  the 
trees.  This  system  proved  satisfactory,  but  had  its  limi- 
tations. 

Briquets,  composed  of  oil-refinery  refuse,  sawdust  and 
low-grade  oil  were  pressed  into  a  tube  and  used  with  or 
without  a  wick.  Cheap  sheet  iron  stoves  in  which  the 
briquets  were  burned  then  came  into  use,  and  proved  still 
better  than  any  of  the  devices  yet  introduced. 

The  next  stage  in  the  evolution  of  orchard  heaters 
seems  to  have  been  an  oil  heater  first  manufactured  at 
Fresno,  Calif.,  and  since  its  invention  there  have  been  a 
great  many  other  styles  put  on  the  market. 

Colorado  has  come  to  the  front  in  this  work  of  devel- 
oping frost  fighting  methods,  and  through  the  efforts  of 
the  orchardists  of  that  great  state  the  present  methods  of 
orchard  heating  have  been  brought  to  commercial  perfec- 
tion. 


Development  of  Modern  Frost  Fighting  55 

Oil  and  Coal  for  Fuel 

From  the  experiments  that  have  been  carried  on  there 
r.nd  elsewhere  it  seems  apparent  that  the  source  of  heat 
must  come  from  any  one  of  three  available  sources  viz., 
wood,  oil  and  coal.  Which  of  these  to  use  will  depend 
on  the  cost  of  the  fuel  laid  down  In  the  orchard.'  In  sec- 


Filling  "Ideal"  Coal  Burning  Orchard  Heaters. 

tions  where  wood  is  still  the  most  abundant  and  cheapest 
fuel,  it  will  be  the  best  to  use.  In  sections  where  oil  can 
be  had  cheaper  than  coal  or  wood,  it  will  serve;  and  in 
other  sections  coal  will  be  the  cheapest  fuel. 

Doubtless  at  the  present  time  more  persons  are  using 
coal  for  fuel  in  some  way  than  any  other  material,  and 


56  The   Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

are  more  familiar  with  its  combustion.  In  the  work  of 
orchard  heating  it  has  given  great  satisfaction,  and  many 
hundreds  of  acres  of  orchards  have  been  kept  from  frost 
ruin  by  coal  burners. 

When  oil  costs  3  cents  per  gallon,  and  coal  can  be 
had  for  $5.00  per  ton,  it  is  the  opinion  of  persons  who  are 
sufficiently  experienced  that  coal  is  the  cheaper  fuel. 
Heaters  are  so  constructed  that  they  will  burn  about  five 
pounds  per  hour,  and  at  this  rate,  a  heater  holding  fifty 
pounds  will  burn  through  most  any  one  of  the  cold  nights 
in  spring  without  the  necessity  of  refilling. 

One  of  the  great  advantages  in  using  coal  for  fuel,  is 
that  no  expensive  storage  tanks  are  necessary,  and  no 
special  equipment  needed  to  enable  the  orchard  man  to 
carry  it  to  the  pots  in  the  orchard.  It  can  be  kept  in  a 
pile  at  a  convenient  place  in  the  orchard,  merely  covered 
with  canvas  or  boards  to  protect  it  from  the  weather. 
Where  oil  is  used  some  special  means  of  storing  must  be 
had,  such  as  a  cement  cistern  or  large  iron  tank,  or  even 
in  numerous  barrels,  and  for  distribution  there  needs  to 
be  a  special  tank  wagon.  Coal,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be 
hauled  in  an  ordinary  wagon  box,  or  what  is  better  in  a 
low  sled,  so  as  to  enable  one  to  get  at  the  coal  with  the 
least  amount  of  labor. 

Heaters  of  this  class  require  some  special  fuel  for  start- 
ing the  fires,  and  this  is  most  easily  obtained  from  kindling 
made  from  broken-up  bits  of  pine  or  from  the  tree  trim- 
mings that  have  been  kept  in  a  dry  place.  A  bit  of  cotton 
waste  should  be  soaked  in  oil  and  placed  in  the  bottom  of 
the  heater,  and  on  top  of  it  a  generous  amount  of  kindling, 
with  the  coal  on  top  of  that.  Egg  or  small  lump  coal  is 
the  best  and  should  be  handled  with  a  fork  so  as  to  avoid 
the  slack  and  small  pieces  that  clog  the  fire  and  make  it 
burn  too  slowly.  The  coal  should  be  piled  in  the  heater 
so  as  to  leave  the  center  open  and  afford  a  draft,  and  also 
to  allow  some  of  the  coal  to  remain  on  the  side  of  the 
heater,  where  it  will  be  in  reserve. 

With  coal  burning  heaters  it  is  the  general  experience 
that  fifty  per  acre  will  generally  suffice  to  hold  the  tern- 


Oil  and  Coal  for  Fuel  57 

perattire  up  about  10  degrees  above  the  minimum  during 
the  frosty  period.  The  greater  number  of  the  heaters 
should  go  around  the  outer  rows  of  the  orchard  with  a 
smaller  proportionate  number  through  the  middle.  This 
arrangement  protects  the  outside  rows,  which  in  turn  keep 
the  middles  from  low  temperatures,  and  also  enables  the 
workmen  to  handle  the  heaters  with  the  smallest  amount 
of  labor. 


A  Cement  Tank  used  for  Storing-  Oil. 

Heaters  need  not  be  distributed  until  about  the  time 
the  buds  are  beginning  to  open,  and  should  remain  in  the 
orchard  until  well  after  the  last  frost  has  passed.  The 
fires  need  not  be  lighted  until  the  temperature  has  reached 
the  freezing  point,  and  if  it  is  well  past  midnight,  only 
about  half  of  the  heaters  need  be  lighted  on  the  start,  so 
as  to  hold  the  remainder  in  reserve,  and  to  economize  on 
coal.  Where  the  work  has  been  arranged  for  in  advance, 
and  has  been  systematized,  many  growers  have  found  that 
two  men  can  look  after  the  heaters  on  three  acres. 


58  The    Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

In  using  oil  as  a  fuel  the  largest  item  of  expense,  after 
the  purchase  of  the  fire  pots  and  the  oil,  is  the  storage 
tank  for  the  oil.  Enough  oil  should  be  on  hand  at  the 
beginning  of  the  season  to  last  through  any  possible  cold 
snap  that  might  come.  This  will  mean  that  all  of  the  oil 
will  hardly  be  used  in  any  one  season,  and  perhaps  good 
fortune  will  smile  on  the  fruit  grower  and  make  it  un- 
necessary to  heat  over  a  period  of  years.  However  it  is 
highly  necessary  to  have  both  heaters  and  fuel  on  hand 
in  the  case  of  an  emergency.  The  most  convenient  way 
to  store  the  oil  is  in  a  large  storage  tank  located  on  an 
elevation  such  as  a  hillside  where  the  oil  can  be  emptied 
into  the  storage  tank  by  gravity  and  withdrawn  into  the 
tank  wagon  or  heaters  in  a  similar  manner.  Lifting  the 
oil  out  of  the  tanks  with  a  pump  is  both  laborious  and 
costly,  so  that  where  the  oil  can  be  handled  by  running  it 
down  hill  it  is  cheapest  to  do  it  that  way. 

Use  Enough  Heaters 

It  is  advisable  to  have  more  heaters  distributed  through 
the  orchard  than  will  possibly  be  needed  on  any  night. 
The  advantage  of  this  is  that  when  the  fires  are  required 
about  one  of  every  three  pots  can  be  lighted,  and  if  there 
is  danger  of  the  temperature  dropping  still  lower,  and 
this  many  pots  will  not  keep  the  temperature  up  to  the 
desired  point,  there  are  still  others  to  be  lighted. 

Whatever  heaters  are  used,  they  should  by  all  means 
be  properly  distributed  throughout  the  orchard  a  few  days 
before  there  is  possibility  of  having  to  put  them  into  use. 
They  will  need  to  be  covered  to  prevent  water  getting  on 
the  fuel,  as  it  will  cause  trouble.  Coal  that  is  wet  will  not 
ignite  easily,  and  at  best  it  is  slow  and  troublesome  to  set 
on  fire.  With  the  oil,  if  water  gets  into  it  it  will  spatter 
and  possibly  fry  or  boil  over  on  to  the  ground  and  not 
make  as  satisfactory  a  fire  as  when  it  is  kept  perfectly 
dry.  Nearly  all  of  the  various  makes  of  heaters  that  are 
on  the  market  are  provided  with  lids  to  protect  the  fuel 
from  rain  or  snow.  With  some  of  them,  however,  it  is 


Cost  of  Heating  59 

necessary  to  weight  the  lid  down  with  a  clod  or  stone  to 
keep  it  from  being  blown  away  in  a  hard  wind. 

Cost  of  Heating 

The  expenses  of  heating  an  orchard  will  depend  alto- 
gether on  a  variety  of  circumstances  that  vary  with  each 
orchard  and  each  season.  But  the  entire  problem  is  nicely 
summed  up  by  a  practical  orchardist .on  the  western  slope 
of  Colorado,  who  makes  this  statement  in  The  Fruit- 
Grower  for  January,  1911: 

"My  calculations  of  the  expenses  of  heating  an  orchard, 
taken  from  my  own  experience,  are  as  follows,  based  on 
a  ten-acre  orchard: 

800  heaters  at  45c  each - $360.00 

?.  1,200  gal.  storage  tanks  at  $50  each 1 50.00 

1  wagon  tank   35.00 

1  oil  pump   17.50 

2  oil  pails  at  65c  each 1.30 

6  torches    40 

100  pounds  waste    8.00 

4,000  gallons  oil  at  5c  gallon 200.00 

Total  first  cost  of  equipment $762.20 

"Now  suppose  we  go  on  for  ten  years,  for  of  course 
we  are  going  to  keep  this  outfit  always  in  readiness,  and 
we  must  allow  $100  per  year  to  keep  our  supply  of  fuel. 
We  then  have  $1)00  more,  making  a  total  expenditure  in 
ten  years  of  $1,662.20,  or  an  average  of  $166.22  per  year 
for  ten*  years.  This  is  a  cost  of  $16.62  per  acre,  making 
the  cost  from  15  to  25  cents  per  tree  each  year  depending 
on  the  number  of  trees  per  acre. 

"If  I  had  a  bearing  orchard  that  I  did  not  think  would 
stand  this  expense,  I  would  pull  it  out  and  grow  potatoes, 
sugar  beets  or  hay."  These  figures  while  illustrating  very 
nicely  the  cost  of  equipment  for  heating,  will  vary  in  dif- 
ferent localities  according  to  the  cost  of  the  storage  tanks, 
style  of  heater  and  the  cost  of  oil,  but  such  figures  enable 


60  The   Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

one  to  get  an  approximate  idea  of  the  first  cost  of  equip- 
ping an  orchard  for  heating.  The  additional  expenses  of 
the  operation  will  depend  on  the  number  of  nights  the 
heaters  will  be  used,  and  the  cost  of  the  labor.  As  a  rule 
the  heaters  are  needed  for  four  or  five  nights  in  the  spring 
and  with  oil  heaters  it  is  the  general  experience  that  one 
man  can  take  care  of  five  acres  while  it  will  take  possibly 
two  men  to  handle  that  many  acres  where  coal  burners  are 
used. 

During  the  next  ten  years  there  will  no  doubt  be  as 
great  a  development  in  the  styles  of  orchard  heaters  in 
use  by  the  commercial  orchardists  as  there  are  in  the 
styles  of  spraying  machines  that  are  in  use  today,  and 
which  were  in  use  ten  years  ago.  This  is  to  be  easily  sur- 
mised as  the  heaters,  both  coal  and  oil,  which  are  now  in 
use  are  not  altogether  satisfactory  in  many  respects.  One 
of  the  principal  troubles  with  the  oil  burning  pots  is  that 
when  the  oil  has  burned  down  half  way  or  more  in  the  pot 
the  fires  are  not  as  hot  as  when  the  oil  is  at  or  near  the 
top  of  the  pot  This  is  because  the  upward  currents  of 
heated  air  prevent  the  oxygen  getting  down  to  the  surface 
of  the  oil  to  make  the  flame.  This  slow  combustion  of  the 
oil  causes  it  to  deposit  larger  amounts  of  soot  around  the 
top  of  the  pot  and  throwing  more  of  it  off  into  the  air. 
Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  perfect  a  heater  that 
had  a  reservoir  holding  several  gallons  and  fed  through 
a  pipe  into  the  fire  pan.  But  up  to  the  present  time 
no  one  has  succeeded  in  perfecting  such  a  reservoir 
heater  which  will  satisfactorily  burn  gas  or  fuel  oil  in 
cold  weather.  These  oils  are  thick  and  gummy,  and 
even  become  almost  solid  in  cold  weather,  so  that 
when  the  oil  must  flow  through  a  pipe,  as  is  the  case  with 
all  of  the  heaters  of  this  class  at  the  present  time,  the  oil 
thickens  so  that  it  will  not  flow. 

Aside  from  this  trouble,  the  heavy  oils  which  are  used 
leave  a  thick  deposit  of  residue  or  asphalt  in  the  bottoms 
of  the  heaters,  so  that  after  burning  for  three  or  four 
nights  this  sediment  must  be  scraped  out.  To  do  this  it 


Danger  Points  61 

is  often  necessary  to  heat  the  pots,  and  even  at  best  it  is 
a  slow  and  nasty  job. 

The  style  of  oil  burning  pot  that  is  most  needed  is  on^ 
that  is  inexpensive,  in  which  the  burning  oil  can  be  kept 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  top  of  the  container  all  of 
the  time,  and  which  will  make  the  maximum  amount  of 
heat  with  a  given  quantity,  and  also  one  that  will  require 
the  minimum  amount  of  labor  in  filling,  cleaning  and 
storing. 

In  heating  an  orchard  it  is  important  that  the  operator 
know  what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it,  so  that  for  persons 
who  have  never  operated  orchard  heaters  it  is  advisable 
by  all  means  that  several  of  the  heaters  be  set  out  in  the 
orchard,  or  an  open  place  some  time  in  advance  of  the 
time  they  are  liable  to  be  needed,  and  filled  up  with  the 
fuel  to  be  used  and  then  lighted.  Watch  the  way  the  fuel 
burns,  and  time  the  pots  to  see  how  long  they  will  con- 
tinue to  throw  off  the  greatest  amount  of  heat  they  are 
capable  of  producing.  It  will  take  but  little  time  and  be 
very  little  expense  to  make  such  a  test,  while  it  will  more 
than  likely  serve  a  good  turn  to  the  orchardist  when  the 
danger  time  comes  in  the  spring. 

Danger  Points 

It  is  commonly  believed  that  the  danger  point  for  fruit 
buds  is  32  degrees  F.,  or  the  point  at  which  frost  forms 
and  water  freezes.  This,  however,  is  not  correct,  as  the, 
danger  point  to  different  kinds  of  fruits  is  variable,  both 
with  the  kind  of  fruit  and  stage  of  development  of  the 
flowers.  It  will  also  vary  with  the  conditions  of  the  soil 
as  to  whether  it  is  wet  or  dry  or  warm  or  cold.  The 
Missouri  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  has  found  that 
dormant  peach  buds  can  stand  a  temperature  of  8  or  9 
degrees  below  zero  with  no  injury.  When  the  buds  are 
appreciably  swollen,  zero  weather  is  the  danger  point. 
When  the  buds  are  showing  pink  they  can  stand  15  de- 
grees above  zero.  When  the  buds  are  almost  open,  25 
degrees  is  the  danger  point.  When  they  are  newly  opened 


62  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

about  20  degrees  would  be  the  point  of  danger.  When  the 
petals  are  beginning  to  fall,  28  degrees  above  zero  is  cold 
enough  to  cause  uneasiness.  When  the  petals  are  off  they 
can  stand  30  degrees  above  zero.  When  the  "shucks" 
(calyx  tubes)  are  beginning  to  fall  off,  32  degrees  above 
zero  is  the  danger  point. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  makes 
the  statement  that  the  danger  point  for  apples  when  they 
are  showing  pink  is  20  degrees. above  zero;  in  full  bloom, 
26  degrees  above;  pears  showing  pink,  20  above  zero;  in 
full  bloom,  27  above  zero;  peaches  showing  pink,  23  above 
zero;  in  full  bloom,  28  above  zero. 

Professor  P.  J.  O'Gara  stated  that  in  southern  Oregon 
the  temperature  at  which  apricot  is  injured  when  in  the 
bud  is  28  degrees  above  zero  and  at  30  degrees  when  in 
blossom;  cherries  are  injured  at  29  degrees  just  before 
the  blooms  open,  and  plums  injured  at  30  degrees  above 
zero  when  the  flowers  begin  to  show  white. 

These  figures  are  not  absolute,  and  will  vary  slightly 
from  year  to  year  and  with  the  conditions  of  the  bud,  but 
they  will  serve  to  indicate  that  the  buds  will  not  be  in- 
jured when  the  temperature  falls  below  the  freezing  point 
for  a  couple  of  degrees.  Bearing  this  in  mind  it  will  be 
apparent  to  the  orchardist  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
start  up  the  heaters  until  the  temperature  has  reached  the 
freezing  point,  and  if  the  prospects  are  for  only  a  few 
degrees  of  frost  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  light  up  all  of 
the  fires  in  the  orchard,  but  to  hold  some  of  them  in  re- 
serve. 

In  heating  the  orchard  it  is  not  necessary  to  run  the 
temperature  more  than  to  the  freezing  point,  or  at  most 
a  couple  of  degrees  above,  as  there  is  nothing  gained.  In 
fact  it  may  be  even  objectionable  through  causing  the 
buds  to  grow  a  little  and  become  even  more  tender  than 
they  would  be  if  the  temperature  is  held  close  to  the  frost 
line.  To  be  certain  as  to  the  departure  of  the  temperature 
above  or  below  the  freezing  point  it  is  necessary  that  the 
orchard  be  provided  with  several  thermometers  located  at 


Danger  Points  63 

convenient  places  where  they  can  be  looked  at  frequently 
by  the  overseer  of   the  operations. 

It  needs  to  be  borne  in  mind  when  the  work  of  orchard 
heating  is  begun  that  one  has  something  else  to  do  after 
the  fires  are  started  than  to  stand  around  and  see  the  tem- 
perature in  the  heated  zone  rise  to  the  point  of  comfort, 
while  outside  the  frost  will  be  forming  over  all.  In  fact, 
when  orchard  heaters  are  started  to  going  it  will  keep  all 
hands  on  the  bounce  looking  after  the  fires,  keeping  them 
shut  down  or  opened  up  so  as  to  burn  all  the  more  vigor- 
ously. When  a  sudden  drop  in  temperature  does  occur, 
and  the  heaters  have  been  burning  for  several  hours,  it 
may  necessitate  filling  the  heaters  while  they  burn.  This 
is  not  an  easy  task,  and  especially  when  the  coal  burners 
are  used,  as  it  will  mean  that  the  pots  must  be  cleaned 
out  and  sometimes  that  the  fires  must  be  rekindled.  Then, 
after  working  all  night  with  the  heaters,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary on  the  day  following  to  get  them  all  cleaned  up, 
kindled  and  refilled  so  as  to  be  ready  in  case  they  are 
needed  the  next  night.  This  day  and  night  work  is  ex- 
hausting, and  it  is  important  that  the  orchardist  prepare 
before  hand  and  get  sufficient  help  to  do  the  work,  and 
have  the  help  well  drilled  in  their  work,  so  that  the  job 
can  proceed  with  the  least  amount  of  trouble.  Just  a  little 
systematizing  of  the  procedure  helps  wonderfully  in  mak- 
ing a  success  of  the  work. 


64  The    Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 


CHAPTER  III 

Thinning  and  Harvesting 

Thinning 

The  practice  of  thinning  fruit  on  the  trees  is  not  as 
extensively  practiced  by  fruit  growers  as  it  will  be  in  a 
few  years  in  the  future.  The  competition  in  fruit  growing 
is  becoming  more  keen  each  year,  and  the  markets  have 
less  poor  fruit  each  year,  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant 
when  the  commercial  orchardist  cannot  afford  to  grow 
fruit  which  will  not  measure  up  to  the  present  standard  of 
fancy.  Thinning  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  removing  a 
portion  of  the  fruit  on  the  trees  so  as  to  allow  that  which 
remains  to  reach  a  larger  size.  It  is  profitable  only  on 
trees  that  are  carrying  a  heavy  load.  To  a  certain  extent 
the  thinning  can  be  done  by  pruning  away  some  of  the 
fruit  producing  wood,  but  in  other  cases  it  will  take  hand 
thinning  to  properly  distribute  the  fruit. 

It  has  been  frequently  argued  that  it  costs  too  much  to 
thin,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  will  cost  no  more  to  pick 
the  fruit  when  it  is  small  than  it  will  when  it  reaches 
maturity.  In  many  instances  it  will  not  cost  as  much. 
It  is  money  well  invested  at  any  rate,  as  the  reducing  of 
a  heavy  crop  works  to  the  advantage  of  enlarging  each  in- 
dividual fruit  left  on  the  tree,  and  allows  the  tree  to  form 
fruit  buds  for  the  next  year.  In  regions  where  the  trees 
tend-  to  an  alternation  in  years  of  fruit  production,  the 
thinning  of  the  crops  will  regulate  the  alternating  habit. 
In  the  Western  states  where  trees  regularly  overbear, 
thinning  will  allow  the  trees  to  make  more  wood  growth 


Thinning  65 

and  to  enlarge  the  size   of  the  crop  that  remains   on   the 
trees. 

It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  formal  set  of  rules 
for  thinning  as  more  depends  on  the  size  of  the  crop  than 
any  other  factor.  In  years  when  there  is  a  very  light  crop 
on  the  trees  thinning  may  not  be  necessary,  but  in  years 
when  the  crop  is  heavy  it  is  always  advisable. 


Peaches  in  the  Right  Stage  for  Thinning. 

Apples    will   usually  produce   their  fruit   in   clusters   of 
from  three  to  half  a  dozen  fruits  in  a  bunch.     All  but  the 
best  apple  in  a  bunch  should  be  removed.     On  the  tips  of 
(3) 


66  The   Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

the  longest  whips  fruit  is  often  formed,  but  will  not  de- 
velop into  fancy  fruit,  so  they  had  best  be  removed,  allow- 
ing only  the  fruit  on  the  spurs  to  remain,  thinning  out  to 
only  one  on  a  spur. 

Pears  have  about  the  same  habit  of  fruiting  as  do  the 
apples,  and  need  to  be  thinned  in  the  same  way.  With 
young  trees  and  with  trees  that  are  not  carrying  a  very 
heavy  load  of  fruit,  thinning  is  not  always  a  necessity,  as 


Apples  at  the  Right  Stage  for  Thinning. 

if  thinned  on  such  trees  the  fruit  may  become  larger  than 
is  most  desired  for  market  fruit.  Very  large  pears  are 
not  wanted  by  the  average  market,  as  when  they  have  to 
sell  at  a  price  above  5  cents  each  the  demands  are  not 
sufficient  to  warrant  most  dealers  handling  them. 

Peaches,   plums   and   cherries   are   thinned   to   a  large 


Harvesting  67 

extent  by  the  operation  of  pruning.  Peaches  especially 
set  a  far  larger  number  of  fruit  buds  than  the  tree  can 
possibly  bring  to  maturity,  and  thinning  by  removal  of 
some  of  the  fruit  producing  wood  saves  a  large  amount 
of  labor  later  on.  All  of  the  fruit  of  the  peach  is  produced 
on  wood  of  the  last  year's  growth,  and  the  middle  portions 
of  such  branches  will  have  one  or  two  buds  at  each  node. 
The  thinning  should  be  done  before  the  peaches  get  any 
larger  than  a  pigeon  egg,  and  need  to  be  thinned  out  so 
that  the  fruit  on  any  one  branch  is  separated  by  at  least 
six  inches  from  any  other  fruit  on  the  same  limb. 

In  thinning  stone  fruits  the  work  can  be  done  by  pull- 
ing the  fruits  off,  but  with  apples  and  .pears  it  is  safest 
to  clip  the  fruit  with  sharp  pointed  shears,  as  if  pulled 
there  is  too  much  liability  of  breaking  off  the  entire  spur. 

Harvesting 

The  harvesting  of  a  fruit  crop  is  only  one  of  the  sev- 
eral important  operations  connected  with  fruit  growing, 
and  yet  it  is  an  operation  which  has  a  great  deal  of  in- 
fluence over  the  final  market  value, of  the  fruit,  and  takes 
a  rank  only  second  to  spraying.  If  fruit  has  been  care- 
fully sprayed,  three-fourths  of  the  loss  that  occurs  by  the 
lime  the  fruit  reaches  the  consumer  will  be  due  to  care- 
lessness in  picking. 

To  know  when  to  pick  a  fruit  is  a  fine  art.  To  know 
how  to  pick  a  fruit  can  be  learned  by  practice,  but  not 
every  one  can  or  will  learn  how  to  do  the  operation  with 
all  of  the  care  that  is  necessary  in  handling  a  high  class 
crop.  The  commercial  fruit  markets  of  today  demand 
fruit  that  is  in  excellent  condition,  and  will  pay  prices 
that  warrant  all  of  the  care  that  the  grower  can  give  the 
fruit  during  the  harvest. 

All  kinds  of  fruit  must  be  picked  by  hand,  rather  than 
by  raking  off  the  tree,  or  shaking  onto  the  ground  to  be 
picked  up  later  on.  Fruit  that  is  picked  from  the  tree 
must  be  laid  carefully  into  a  basket,  bucket  or  bag  and  car- 
ried to  the  packers  with  the  least  possible  shaking  about. 


68  The   Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Most  of  the  fancy  fruit  that  is  produced  is  held  in  cold 
storage  during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  and  its  market 
price  will  be  determined  largely  by  its  superiority  as  a 
cold  storage  product.  This  means  that  the  fruit  must  be 
picked  in  the  proper  condition.  Fruit  which  is  fully  ripe, 
but  not  overripe,  well  colored  and  placed  in  storage  im- 
mediately after  harvesting  keeps  best. 

Picking   Apples 

High  quality  apples  must  be  picked  by  hand.  Just 
when  to  pick  will  depend  on  a  variety  of  circumstances. 
It  depends  on  the  variety  of  apple,  the  market  to  which 
it  is  to  go,  the  style  of  packing  and  the  general  excellence 
of  the  crop.  Red  apples  are  usually  ready  to  pick  by  the 
time  they  have  reached  their  full  color;  yellow  apples  can- 
not always  be  determined  when  ready  for  picking  by  the 
color  of  the  skin.  A  better  guide  is  by  the  size  of  the 
apple  and  by  the  color  of  the  seeds.  When  the  seeds  have 
become  a  good  brown  color  the  apple  has  reached  its  ma- 
turity and  is  ready  for  picking.  Some  varieties  of  apples 
like  Ben  Davis  and  Northern  Spy  will  hang  on  the  trees 
for  a  long  time  after  becoming  ripe  enough  to  pick,  while 
varieties  like  Wagener  and  Wealthy  or  other  early  matur- 
ing kinds,  will  generally  begin  dropping  by  the  time  they 
have  reached  maturity. 

The  time  to  pick  apples  is  determined  to  some  extent 
by  the  distance  to  market.  When  apples  are  to  be  used 
in  the  local  market,  or  to  be  shipped  only  short  distances, 
they  can  be  allowed  to  hang  on  the  trees  longer,  and  will 
take  on  a  higher  color.  If  the  fruit  is  to  be  shipped  great 
distances  it  must  be  picked  as  soon  as  possible  after 
having  reached  its  maturity,  although  in  some  instances 
the  fruit  may  have  to  be  gathered  while  it  is  still  a  little 
on  the  green  side  of  maturity. 

For  high  quality  fruit  it  is  the  practice  of  many  orchard- 
ists,  especially  in  the  Western  fruit  sections,  to  make  sev- 
eral pickings,  going  over  the  trees  at  least  three  different 
times,  picking  only  the  largest  fruits  each  time.  This  will 


Picking  Apples  69 

often  result  in  increasing  the  grade  of  the  fruit,  as  apples 
will  continue  to  increase  in  size,  and  deepen  in  color, 
during  the  last  few  days  they  remain  on  the  tree.  Some 
varieties  of  red  apples  will  not  take  on  the  highest  color 
they  can  attain  until  after  the  leaves  have  begun  to  thin 
out  a  little  in  the  fall  and  allow  the  sunlight  to  enter  the 
tree.  | 

The  coloring  of  an  apple  is  a  character  that  has  a  great 
influence  over  the  final  price  the  fruit  will  bring  in  the 
market.  Red  apples  that  have  reached  maturity,  and  are 
perfect  in  every  respect  except  that  they  are  poorly  col- 
ored, will  not  bring  the  same  price  as  apples  that  are  per- 
fectly colored.  In  some  of  the  Western  fruit  districts 
that  make  a  specialty  of  fancy  fruit,  it  is  demanded  by  the 
associations  that  the  growers  put  into  their  first  grade 
or  extra  fancy  fruit,  only  apples  that  are  at  least  70  per 
cent  red.  By  making  several  pickings  the  color  of  much 
of  the  fruit  can  be  increased  materially,  and  the  increased 
price  for  high  colored  fruit  offsets  the  increased  cost  of 
making  additional  pickings. 

In  picking  fruit  every  care  should  be  exercised  that  the 
skin  of  the  fruit  is  not  injured  by  punctures  from  the  fruit 
spurs,  and  from  the  finger  nails  of  the  pickers.  It  should 
not  be  knocked  against  any  object  that  would  cause  a 
bruise.  A  bruise  so  slight  as  to  not  be  noticeable  will 
develop  into  a  discoloration  in  many  varieties,  especially 
yellow  apples,  and  possibly  cause  the  tissue  to  break  down 
and  rot.  The  pickers  should  be  warned  and  watched 
against  pulling  out  the  stems  of  the  apples.  Every  fruit 
should  have  the  stem  left  in  the  apple,  and  this  can  always 
be  had  if  the  fruit  is  not  pulled  off  the  twig.  Each  apple 
should  be  grasped  firmly  and  lifted  up  at  a  sharp  angle 
to  the  twig  and  given  a  quick  twist.  Unless  very  green, 
the  stem  will  break  easily  from  the  spur.  When  a  stem 
is  pulled  out  of  the  fruit  it  always  leaves  a  wound  into 
which  mould  spores  can  enter  and  start  the  apple  to  rot- 
ting. 

Mechanical  pickers  are  of  little  value  in  harvesting  a 
crop  of  fancy  apples.  They  may  be  of  some  service  in  the 


70  The    Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

home  orchard,  or  where  cider  apples?  are  being  harvested, 
but  have  no  place  in  the  orchard  where  fancy  fruit  is  being 
grown.  The  principal  objection  to  mechanical  pickers  is 
that  they  invariably  pull  the  stems  out  of  the  apples  and 
subject  the  fruit  to  more  or  less  bruising  and  puncture  the 
skin. 

Buckets  and  Ladders 

Tin  or  galvanized  iron  buckets  are  the  best  things  to 
use  in  picking  apples,  and  each  bucket  should  be  provided 
with  a  large,  strong  wire  hook  attached  to  the  bail,  in 
order  that  the  bucket  can  be  hung  on  a  limb  or  on  the 
ladder  while  being  filled.  It  is  better  to  have  the  bucket 
on  the  ladder  or  on  a  limb,  rather  than  to  be  attached  to 
the  picker,  as  the  fruit  is  subjected  to  less  damage  from 
bruising.  Baskets  holding  a  half  bushel  or  less,  and  which 
are  well  padded  inside,  are  very  satisfactory  for  picking 
apples  into,  but  are  more  unwieldy  than  the  bucket.  Some 
persons  use  buckets  that  have  a  canvas  bottom  which  can 
be  loosened  so  that  the  apples  roll  into  the  lug  box  or  on 
the  packing  table.  They  answer  very  well  in  the  hands  of 
careful  pickers,  but  the  fruit  is  liable  to  be  bruised  by 
being  set  down  on  hard  objects.  Picking  bags  and  baskets 
also  serve  their  purpose  very  well  in  the  hands  of  careful 
pickers,  but  as  it  makes  it  necessary  for  the  pickers  to 
carry  the  fruit  about  with  them  at  every  move,  there  is 
great  danger  of  the  fruit  being  bruised. 

Ladders  are  a  necessity,  and  the  best  ones,  except  for 
very  high  trees,  are  step  ladders  with  three  legs.  Such  a 
ladder  will  set  more  solidly  than  a  ladder  with  four  legs. 
The  best  for  high  trees  are  light  ladders  with  two  rails  so 
shaped  that  the  rails  meet  at  the  top  and  are  continued  up- 
ward for  a  couple  or  three  feet.  Ladders  of  this  sort  slip 
into  the  branches  easily  and  are  strong  and  substantial. 
It  is  an  advantage  in  picking  apples  to  have  the  picking 
crew  graded  according  to  height.  Some  of  the  pickers 
should  work  on  the  ground,  picking  no  fruit  they  cannot 
reach  easily  from  the  ground.  Another  set  of  pickers 
sliculd  work  from  six-foot  ladders,  and  the  remainder  work 


Buckets  and  Ladders 


71 


from  high  ladders.  This  will  facilitate  the  picking  as  the 
pickers  will  quickly  adapt  themselves  to  th?  height  at 
which  they  must  work  and  learn  how  to  handle  themselves 
and  their  bucket. 

After  the  fruit  is  picked  it  must  be  kept  out  of  the  sun. 
The  best  method  is  to  have  the  pickers  empty  their  buck- 


step  Ladders  arid  Picking  Bags  used  in  Harvesting  Ap- 
ples  in  Western   Colorado. 


ets  into  lug  boxes,  filling  the  boxes  no  more  than  level 
lull,  and  haul  the  boxes  to  the  packers  immediately.  In 
emptying  the  buckets  or  bags  the  pickers  should  not  pour 
or  drop  the  apples  into  the  boxes,  but  lift  each  apple  care- 
fully ami  lay  it  over  by  hand.  A  drop  of  only  a  few  inches 
will  in  many  cases,  bruise  the  fruit.  Apples  must  be 


72  The    Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

handled  as  carefully  as  eggs.  The  practice  of  transferring! 
the  apples  from  the  picking  bucket  to  a  heap  on  the 
ground  to  await  the  packers  in  the  orchard  is  not  recom- 
mended for  fancy  apples.  They  will  be  more  or  less 
bruised;  they  will  heat  and  unless  carefully  covered, 
they  will  be  scalded  by  the  sunlight.  Some  growers  trans- 
fer the  apples  from  the  pickers  directly  to  the  wagon, 
where  they  are  loaded  in  bulk  and  hauled  to  the  packers 
and  poured  out  on  the  packing  tables.  This  always  bruises 
the  fruit  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and  is  not  recom- 
mended. The  best  practice  is  to  transfer  the  fruit  from 
the  pickers'  buckets  into  lug  boxes  of  three-eighth  inch 
sides  and  bottoms  and  three-fourths  inch  ends  with  a 
cleat  across  the  top  at  each  end  to  keep  the  boxes  apart 
when  piled  on  top  of  each  other.  It  is  an  advantage  in 
handling  the  boxes  to  have  hand  holds  sawed  in  the  ends 
by  which  they  can  be  carried. 

Apples  should  be  hauled  from  the  orchard  to  the  pack- 
ing house  on  low  wheeled  wagons  equipped  with  good 
bolster  springs.  A  low  wheeled  wagon  will  pass  under 
the  limbs  of  the  trees  more  easily  than  the  high  wheels, 
and  will  cause  less  damage  to  the  low  limbs  and  to  the 
fruit  that  hangs  low  on  the  trees.  Where  lug  boxes  are 
used,  make  a  platform  for  the  wagon,  around  the  edge  of 
which  there  is  a  one-inch  strip  to  keep  the  boxes  from 
sliding  off.  The  boxes  can  be  piled  two  or  three  high, 
and  such  a  wagon  is  far  more  easily  loaded  and  unloaded 
than  an  ordinary  wagon  box. 

Pickers  should  be  paid  by  the  day  rather  than  by  the 
quantity.  This  will  insure  less  injury  to  the  fruit,  as.  when 
paid  by  the  quantity  the  pickers  will  have  no  interest  than 
to  get  as  many  apples  off  in  a  day  as  possible.  By  receiv- 
ing a  certain  sum  for  each  day's  work,  they  will  exercise 
more  care  to  pick  each  apple  so  as  to  retain  the  stem  and 
to  handle  the  fruit  without  bruising.  Apples  picked  while 
wet  from  rain  or  heavy  dew  will  rot  quickly.  It  is  better 
always  to  wait  until  the  trees  have  dried  off  before  com- 
mencing to  pick  after  a  rain. 


Picking   Peaches 
Picking  Peaches 


73 


Peaches  for  eating  out  of  the  hand  are  best  when 
picked  just  before  the  fruit  has  become  so  ripe  that  it  will 
fall  off  the  tree.  However,  for  the  commercial  peach, 
where  the  fruit  will  possibly  be  shipped  a  thousand  miles 
or  more,  and  where  it  may  have  to  lay  in  the  package  for 
ten  days  or  so  before  finally  reaching  the  consumer,  it  is 


Peach  Pickers  Using  Bushel  Baskets. 


impossible  to  let  them  reach  their  full  maturity  before  pick- 
ing. It  is  always  best  to  leave  them  on  the  tree  just  as  long 
as  possible  and  still  get  them  to  the  consumer  without  their 
being  injured  or  overripe.  This  means  that  for  nearby 
markets  they  can  be  allowed  to  become  riper  than  where 
they  are  sent  to  far  distant  markets.  However,  the  fruit 


74  The    Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

should  not  be  either  too  ripe  or  too  green.     It  is  easy  to 
err  on  either  side. 

Peaches  vary  considerably  with  the  different  varieties 
as  to  the  stage  of  maturity  they  must  reach  before  picking. 
Firm  varieties  like  Elberta  can  be  allowed  to  reach  a  riper 
condition  before  picking  than  with  the  soft  fleshed  kinds 
like  Carman.  In  cool  dry  weather  the  fruit  can  become 
riper  than  when  it  is  hot  and  muggy.  In  wet  weather 
tnere  is  always  much  loss  from  the  fruit  rotting. 

A  half-bushel  wooden  basket  is  the  best  thing  to  use 
for  picking  peaches.  The  fruit  should  be  picked  from  the 
trees  carefully,  and  just  at  the  time  when  it  has  reached 
its  full  size  and  developed  a  good  blush  on  the  sunny  side. 
When  ready  to  pick  the  fruit  must  be  solid,  with  no  indi- 
cation of  a  soft  spot,  and  must  be  handled  carefully  so  as 
to  not  bruise  it  by  dropping  it  into  the  basket  or  in  hauling 
it  to  the  packing  shed.  If  a  soft  spot  can  be  felt  when  the 
fruit  is  held  in  the  hand  and  squeezed  gently,  it  is  too  ripe 
to  ship  far. 

It  pays  to  go  over  the  trees  several  times,  as  the  fruit 
will  not  all  reach  the  same  stage  of  ripeness  at  the  same 
time  and  the  smaller  fruits  that  may  be  left  for  several 
days  on  the  trees  will  increase  greatly  in  size  and  pack  into 
a  much  larger  grade  than  if  the  tree  is  stripped  at  one 
picking. 

Picking   Pears 

It  is  necessary  in  putting  out  a  first-class  grade  of 
pears  to  go  over  the  trees  not  less  than  three  times,  taking 
at  each  picking  only  those  pears  which  are  ready  to  pick. 
To  know  when  to  pick  a  pear  can  be  learned  only  by  ex- 
perience. When  left  on  the  trees  until  they  have  begun  to 
color  pears  will  become  granular  in  the  center,  and  in 
storage  they  will  break  down  at  the  core  and  become  soft 
and  mushy.  A  pear  for  market  needs  to  be  picked  when 
it  has  reached  its  full  size  but  is  still  green  in  color.  In 
some  varieties,  such  as  Bartlett  and  Cornice,  the  usual 
method  of  knowing  when  a  pear  is  ready  to  pick  is  when 
the  pear  will  snap  off  the  stem  when  the  fruit  is  lifted  and 


Picking  Pears  75 

bent  upwards  at  a  sharp  angle  to  the  fruit  spur.  When 
such  is  the  case  the  fruit  needs  to  be  picked  and  placed  in 
storage  to  ripen.  The  yellow  coloring  of  pears  is  devel- 
oped in  storage,  although  the  crimson  blush  which  appears 
on  some  kinds  must  be  formed  while  still  hanging  on  the 
tree.  Not  many  varieties  of  pears  will  take  on  a  red  cheek, 
although  it  is  common  to  some  kinds. 

Pears  need  to  be  handled  with  as  much  care  as  the 
apple,  and  extra  care  must  be  taken  that  the  stems  are  not 
broken  off  or  pulled  out.  On  account  of  their  extending 
out  of  the  fruit,  and  being  quite  rigid,  they  are  easily 
broken,  and  the  way  opened  for  the  entrance  of  germs  that 
will  cause  the  fruit  to  rot. 


76  The    Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 


CHAPTER  IV 


Packing 

Packing  in  its  broadest  application  consists  of  the  oper- 
ation of  placing  articles,  goods,  products  or  merchandise 
into  suitable  parcels,  baskets,  boxes,  cans,  barrels  or  other 
packages  for  safe  transportation.  In  horticultural  work 
it  applies  especially  to  the  preparation  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables for  shipment. 

The  approved  method  of  packing  fruits  and  vegetables 
necessarily  differs  widely  with  the  nature  of  the  article 
to  be  packed,  and  for  the  same  product  custom  has  estab- 
lished different  practices  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
Formerly  it  was  the  habit  in  many  markets  to  return  the 
empty  packages  to  the  shipper  so  that  they  could  be  used 
over  and  over  again.  With  the  vast  increase  in  distant 
shipments,  due  to  improved  transportation  facilities,  this 
became  impossible,  and  now  cheap  gift  packages  intended 
to  be  used  but  once,  are  coming  into  favor,  and  in  some 
regions  are  used  exclusively.  This  is  by  far  the  best  prac- 
tice, as  it  is  a  sanitary  method,  and  assures  a  clean,  neat 
package  for  the  product. 

While  the  shape,  size  and  form  of  the  package  varies 
widely  for  the  same  kind  of  product  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  some  form  of  crate,  barrel,  box  or  basket 
constitutes  the  commonest  package  for  the  ordinary  fruits 
or  vegetables.  These  are  modified  to  suit  the  particular 
purpose. 

Modern  Packages 

Modern  packages  are  characterized  by  lightness,  neat- 
ness, cheapness  and  uniformity,  and  are  of  such  shape  as 


Modern  Packages  77 

will  best  accommodate  the  kind  of  product  for  which  they 
are  designed.  Most  packages  are  intended  to  contain  some 
certain  standard  quantity,  as  pint,  quart,  bushel  or  multiple 
thereof,  yet  every  market  is  more  or  less  full  of  packages 
which  contain  "short"  measure.  Legal  actions  and  regu- 
lations have  been  somewhat  ineffectual  in  enforcing  the 
adoption  of  packages  containing  quantities  of  certain  vol- 
r.me,  yet  they  should  be  observed  by  all  growers,  especi- 
ally when  the  package  is  expected  to  contain  a  specific 
volume  of  standard  measurement. 

The  sale  of  any  product  largely  depends  on  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  packages  in  which  they  are  contained,  and 
packages  which  attract  the  eye  of  the  buyer  are  most 
easily  sold.  It  is  always  advisable  to  have  a  sufficient 
supply  of  the  desired  packages  on  hand  at  the  beginning 
of  the  shipping  season,  as  it  is  often  difficult  to  get  the 
right  kinds  of  packages  at  the  height  of  the  season  for 
that  particular  kind  of  product.  Packages  which  have 
been  once  used  for  the  shipment  of  fruit  or  vegetables 
should  not  be  used  for  the  purpose  a  second  time.  The 
general  appearance  of  such  packages  are  not  only  against 
them,  but  it  frequently  happens  that  the  wood  is  filled 
with  the  spores  of  organisms  which  cause  decomposition 
of  the  product  from  the  produce  which  was  formerly 
packed  in  them.  These  will  then  hasten  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  fresh  produce  which  may  be  packed  therein. 

Any  unused  packages  at  the  end  of  the  season  should 
be  carefully  gathered  together  and  stored  where  they  will 
be  kept  perfectly  dry  and  clean  and  where  their  general 
attractiveness  will  be  retained  until  they  are  to  be  put  into 
use  at  a  subsequent  season. 

Grading  of  the  product  before  packing  is  very  essential, 
and  consists  in  selecting  specimens  of  uniform  size  and 
condition  for  each  grade  used.  There  is  a  variety  of  names 
applied  to  the  grades  of  any  sort  of  produce,  depending 
largely  on  the  locality  and  kind.  Each  package  should 
contain  only  one  grade  and  be  honestly  packed  all  the 
way  through. 

As    a    general    rule    packages    for    soft    and   perishable 


78  The    Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

produce  is  packed  in  small  parcels.  Red  raspberries,  for 
example,  are  packed  in  small  cups  or  boxes  holding  ap- 
proximately a  pint.  On  the  other  hand,  winter  potatoes, 
a  product  that  does  not  require  such  careful  handling,  are 
packed  in  bags  containing  about  150  pounds.  In  the  South- 
ern states  where  the  trucking  industry  has  reached  its 
highest  development,  there  is  much  care  given  to  packing 
vegetables,  so  as  to  have  them  reach  the  markets  in  the 
finest  possible  condition  as  there  is  in  the  Western  or- 
charding sections  to  have  the  highly  perishable  fruits,  such 
as  peaches,  cherries  and  apples,  to  reach  the  markets  in  the 
best  condition. 

Potatoes 

While  the  potato  is  one  product  which  can  be  handled 
with  the  minimum  of  care,  yet  for  the  early  potato  it  is 
necessary  to  observe  certain  precautions  against  bruising 
and  breaking  the  tender  and  immature  skin,  and  in  getting 
them  properly  packed  so  as  to  reach  their  distant  market 
with  the  least  amount  of  loss  from  bruising.  Early  po- 
tatoes need  to  be  handled  carefully  from  the  time  they 
are  taken  from  the  soil  until  in  the  hands  of  the  consumer. 
They  are  sometimes  dug  with  a  machine  made  for  digging 
potatoes,  -and  sometimes  with  an  ordinary  "potato  hook." 
They  should  be  gathered  from  the  field  as  soon  as  possible 
after  digging  to  prevent  their  wilting  and  becoming  sun- 
burned or  turned  green  through  the  development  of  chlo- 
rophyll. Grading  and  packing  may  be  done  in  the  field 
or  they  may  be  taken  to  the  storage  house  and  there  pre- 
pared for  market.  The  crop  requires  as  careful  and  uni- 
form grading  as  any  other  farm  product.  The  tubers 
should  be  sorted  according  to  size  into  first  and  second 
grades.  All  scabby,  second  growth  and  injured  specimens 
should  be  rejected,  and  the  different  varieties  kept  separate. 

Early  potatoes  are  generally  packed  in  ventilated  bar- 
rels with  a  burlap  cover,  although  in  some  sections  the 
barrels  are  double  headed  in  the  same  manner  as  apples. 
The 'potatoes  are  not  "faced,"  but  poured  in  carefully  from 
a  small  basket  that  can  be  lowered  into  the  barrel.  During 


Cabbage  79 

the  process  of  packing  the  barrel  should  be  shaken  or 
"racked"  several  times  so  as  to  cause  the  potatoes  to  settle 
and  arrange  themselves  into  the  spaces  between  the  tubers, 
and  make  the  pack  firm  and  snug  so  that  it  will  be  well 
filled  at  the  time  it  reaches  the  market. 

Sweet  potatoes  are  packed  in  the  same  manner,  and 
fully  as  much  care  is  necessary  in  the  grading  of  them  as 
very  small  string-like  potatoes  are  not  desirable  and  tubers 
which  are  considerably  over  size  add  nothing  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  package.  Potatoes  of  medium  size  are  the 
most  satisfactory  for  the  Northern  markets  and  usually 
bring  the  best  price. 

Some  of  the  Southern  sweet  potato  growers  are  of  the 
opinion  that  the  use  of  double  headed  barrels  add  materi- 
ally to  the  marketing  of  the  tubers  in  the  North,  as  a 
double  headed  barrel  insures  the  potatoes  reaching  the 
market  in  a  better  condition  than  is  usually  the  case  with 
the  burlapped  barrel. 

Cabbage 

In  the  Southern  states  where  cabbage  is  grown  for  the 
Northern  markets  the  usual  package  for  marketing  is  a 
slat-crate  holding  about  100  pounds.  The  heads  are  graded 
according  to  size  and  packed  as  carefully  as  any  other 
perishable  product.  The  slat  crate  or  ventilated  barrel  is 
preferred  to  the  ordinary  barrel  because  of  the  better  ven- 
tilation that  is  obtained.  Cabbage  wilts  considerably  after 
being  cut,  and  unless  there  is  abundant  ventilation  for  this 
moisture,  the  air  in  the  package  becomes  saturated  and 
moisture  frequently  condenses  on  the  sides  of  the  barrel. 
In  a  tight  package  rot  will  quickly  develop,  and  the  prod- 
uct be  spoiled. 

Late  cabbage  is  most  often  packed  in  a  square  crate 
holding  about  a  barrel,  and  in  either  sort  of  package  it  is 
important  to  pack  heads  of  uniform  size  in  each  package, 
and  to  fill  the  package  very  full  and.  solid,  as  cabbage  wilts 
and  shrinks  considerably  during  transportation  so  that  it 
is  important  to  guard  against  having  it  reach  the  buyer  in 
a  slack  condition. 


80  The    Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

Lettuce 

The  packages  for  head  and  leaf  lettuce  are  somewhat 
different.  In  the  Southern  states  where  head  lettuce  is 
grown  in  the  open  field  for  the  Northern  markets,  the 
lettuce  is  generally  marketed  in  half-barrel  baskets,  while 
in  the  North  where  leaf  lettuce  is  grown  in  greenhouses, 
the  products  are  packed  in  half-bushel  veneer  market  bas- 
kets, and  in  one-third  and  one-bushel  boxes. 

All  of  the  heads  of  lettuce  will  not  reach  the  same  stage 
of  development  at  the  same  time  so  that  the  field,  frame 
or  house  must  be  gone  over  several  times,  selecting  each 
time  only  those  plants  which  have  reached  the  proper  de- 
velopment. The  plants  are  sorted  and  graded  as  they  are 
packed.  In  the  Southern  lettuce  fields  the  plants  are  cut 
and  trimmed  in  the  field  and  packed  there  or  taken  to  the 
packing  house  and  packed.  In  the  bottom  layer  of  the 
basket  the  heads  are  placed  stem  end  down  and  the  re- 
mainder of  the  basket  filled  with  stem  end  up,  placing  the 
heads  in  the  basket  as  neatly  as  possible,  and  in  uniform 
layers. 

With  leaf  lettuce  the  packing  is  done  either  flat  or 
stem  end  down,  packing  the  basket  or  box  as  tight  and 
firm  as  possible  without  crushing  the  leaves.  The  leaves 
will  wilt  and  shrink  somewhat  after  being  cut,  and  for 
that  reason  the  packages  need  to  be  well  filled,  but  not  so 
tightly  as  to  heat,  otherwise  they  will  become  slack  before 
reaching  the  market,  and  not  bring  as  good  a  price  as 
might  otherwise  be  had. 

Beans  and  Peas 

Beans  and  peas  from  the  Southern  trucking  districts 
are  marketed  in  the  same  sort  of  half-barrel  basket  as  is 
used  for  lettuce.  The  packing  is  mostly  done  in  the  field, 
each  picker  putting  the  produce  directly  into  the  package 
without  any  additional  sorting  at  the  packing  house.  In 
some  sections  these  packages  are  covered  with  burlap  and 
in  others  a  wooden  lid  is  placed  on  each  basket,  thus  mak- 


Tomatoes  81 

ing  it  possible  to  put  the  product  on  the  Northern  market 
in  somewhat  better  shape  than  when  burlap  covers  are. 
used. 

Cucumbers 

This  crop  is  grown  in  the  open  in  the  Southern  states 
and  in  greenhouses  in  the  north,  for  the  winter  and  early 
spring  trade.  In  the  Southern  states  the  customary  pack- 
age is  a  one-third  barrel  veneer  basket.  The  cucumbers 
are  cut  from  the  vines  and  carried  to  the  packing  house 
where  they  are  sorted  over  and  graded,  so  that  each  basket 
contains  specimens  of  uniform  shape  and  size.  The  most 
desirable  market  size  during  the  early  spring  is  for  fruits 
six  to  eight  inches  long.  These  are  placed  in  the  baskets 
so  as  to  lay  flat,  and  packed  in  as  firmly  as  possible.  The 
baskets  are  covered  with  a  wooden  lid  made  for  the  pur- 
pose. 

Cucumbers  grown  under  glass  are  generally  packed  in 
boxes  which  are  about  eight  inches  deep  and  twenty-four 
inches  square,  and  are  either  stood  on  end  in  the  box  or 
laid  flat,  according  to  the  size  and  grade  that  is  being 
packed. 

Tomatoes 

When  tomatoes  are  grown  as  a  truck  crop  in  the  South 
to  be  shipped  to  some  distant  market  it  is  important  to 
pick  the  fruit  as  soon  as  the  first  coloring  appears.  The 
fruit  needs  to  be  picked  carefully,  without  the  stem,  and 
taken  to  the  packing  shed  in  small  baskets  or  boxes, 
handled  at  all  times  in  such  manner  as  to  prevent  any 
possible  bruises  or  injury  to  the  skin. 

In  packing,  only  sound,  perfect  fruits  should  be  used 
and  each  package  should  contain  as  nearly  as  possible 
fruits  of  the  same  shape,  size  and  color.  For  fancy  mar- 
kets, or  for  long  distance  shipments,  it  is  advisable  to  wrap 
each  fruit  in  a  sheet  of  soft,  white  paper,  upon  which  the 
name  of  the  grower  should  be  neatly  printed. 

The  usual  package  in  the  South  is  the  six-basket  carrier 
similar  to  the  one  that  is  used  in  some  sections  for  packing 


82  The    Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

peaches.     In  packing  such  a  package,  the  fruit  should  be 
arranged  neatly  in  rows  in  each  little  basket. 

Where  the  fruits  are  placed  on  local  or  nearby  mar- 
kets they  are  packed  in  the  Michigan  or  Delaware  type 
of  baskets. 

Beets 

For  distant  shipment  beets  are  pulled  when  about  two 
and  a  half  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  tied  in  bunches  of 
from  about  four  to  six,  with  the  tops  cut  back  about  one- 
half.  There  is  no  standard  sort  of  package  for  this  root 
crop,  the  kind  used  depending  largely  on  the  market  to 
which  the  crop  is  sent.  Some  markets  prefer  the  venti- 
lated barrels,  while  others  want  a  bushel  slat-crate  and 
still  others  want  either  the  half-bushel  or  half-barrel 
veneer  hamper.  No  matter  what  sort  of  package  is  used, 
the  beets  should  be  well  graded  and  neatly  packed. 

Celery 

This  crop  is  quite  uniformly  marketed  in  crates  by  the 
growers  in  all  of  the  important  celery  producing  regions. 
The  plants  are  dug  from  the  field  and  the  roots  cut  off  and 
then  tied  into  bundles  of  from  four  to  a  dozen  plants  in  a 
bundle  and  packed  root  end  down  in  open  crates.  In  some 
of  the  Northern  markets,  where  celery  is  marketed  locally, 
the  plants  do  not  have  the  roots  cut  off,  but  are  packed 
in  crates  which  have  a  water  tight  bottom  in  which  a 
little  water  is  placed.  In  such  crates  the  plants  will  keep 
fresh  much  longer  than  where  the  roots  are  cut  off;  how- 
ever, such  packages  are  expensive  and  do  not  permit  of  as 
rapid  handling  as  do  the  standard  crates. 

Radishes 

Radishes  intended  for  long  distance  shipments  are 
pulled  and  tied  into  bundles  of  about  a  dozen  roots  each 
and  packed  in  half-barrels  or  hampers.  It  is  considered 
advisable  in  warm  weather  to  pack  some  two  or  three 


Strawberries 

layers  of  crushed  ice  in  each  package  of  radishes,  espe- 
cially when  shipping  over  long  distances.  This  will  assist 
in  preventing  the  decay  of  the  tops  and  roots,  and  keep 
the  plants  crisp  and  fresh. 

Small  Fruits 

The  packages  used  for  berries  of  all  kinds  are  pint  or 
quart  "cups"  or  boxes  made  of  cardboard  or  thin  veneer 
and  fastened  together  with  wire  staples  or  tacks.  The 
shape  of  the  boxes  varies  somewhat  with  the  market  to 
which  the  fruit  goes,  although  in  a  general  way  square 
boxes,  which  are  a  little  larger  at  the  top  than  bottom  are 
preferred  on  the  Eastern  markets,  while  in  the  Middle 
Western  states  the  "Hallock'1  or  "Leslie"  boxes  are  used. 
Whatever  shape  box  is  used,  they  are  packed  in  crates 
holding  from  16  to  24  or  32,  48  or  60  boxes. 

As  a  rule  the  softer  the  berry  the  smaller  the  box  should 
be,  or  at  least  the  more  shallow  it  should  be  in  order  to 
prevent  the  berries  from  being  crushed  t>y  their  own 
weight.  For  this  reason  the  package  most  popular  for  the 
fruits  of  the  brambles,  such  as  red  raspberries,  black  rasp- 
berries, blackberries  and  dewberries,  are  cups  which  are 
about  five  inches  square  and  two  inches  deep.  These  cup's 
hold  approximately  a  pint,  and  in  them  the  berries  are  not 
piled  so  deep  that  the  bottom  ones  are  crushed  by  the 
weight  of  those  above.  Packages  of  this  size  are  so  satis- 
factory for  small  fruits  that  blackberries  have  been  har- 
vested in  the  Puget  Sound  country  of  Washington  and 
shipped  to  Chicago,  where  they  arrived  practically  in  as 
good  condition  as  the  day  they  were  picked  from  the 
bushes. 

Strawberries 

The  system  of  packing  strawberries  is  undergoing  a 
gradual  transformation,  taking  the  country  as  a  whole. 
This  is  on  account  of  the  great  extension  of  the  commer- 
cial strawberry  growing  country,  and  the  increasing  de- 
mands for  fancy  fruits  in  neat  and  attractive  packages. 


84  The    Fruit-Growers   Guide-Book 

Cups  or  boxes  holding  not  over  a  quart  are  the  accepted 
standard  as  packages  for  strawberries.  In  most  sections 
of  the  country  these  boxes  are  arranged  in  little  trays 
holding  from  four  to  a  dozen  boxes,  which  the  packers 
take  to  the  field.  The  berries  are  picked  directly  into  the 
boxes,  without  any  additional  sorting  or  grading.  While 
this  practice  is  common  and  used  in  all  parts  of  the  straw- 
berry growing  districts,  it  is  falling  into  disfavor  for  the 


A  carefully  packed  crate  of  strawberries.  This  style  of 
packing  adds  materially  to  the  attractiveness  and  helps  in 
bringing  a  better  price. 

reason  that  the  pickers  are  not  always  as  careful  as  they 
should  be  about  grading  the  fruit  as  it  is  picked.  Children 
do  most  of  the  work  of  picking  strawberries,  and  they  be- 
come careless  about  grading  unless  they  are  more  care- 
fully watched  than  most  growers  are  able  to  do. 


Strawberries  85 

Because  of  this  there  is  an  increasing  tendency  among 
growers  who  are  packing  fancy  and  extra  fancy  fruit  to 
have  the  picking  done  in  the  usual  way,  and  then  repack 
the  fruit,  at  the  packing  shed.  In  this  repacking  the  fruit 
is  poured  out  onto  a  tray  having  a  bottom  made  of  mos- 
quito bar  or  soft  cotton  cloth.  All  of  the  bruised,  over- 
ripe or  dirty  berries  are  thrown  out.  The  berries  suitable 
for  packing  are  arranged  in  two  grades,  and  are  placed  in 
the  boxes  in  rows  and  layers,  much  after  the  fashion  of 
boxed  apples.  Berries  which  are  of  irregular  shape,  such 
as  Bubach  or  Aroma,  do  not  pack  into  boxes  as  smoothly 
and  evenly  as  do  such  varieties  as  Senator  Dunlap,  Klon- 
dike or  Clark's  Seedling.  But  whatever  the  size  or  shape 
of  the  berry,  the  boxes  should  be  graded  honestly  with 
the  fruit  in  the  top  layer  turned  with  the  same  side  up, 
thus  "facing"  the  box.  Fruit  which  runs  under  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter  should  not  be  marketed  as 
first-class  berries,  as  they  are  too  small,  and  should  be 
sent  to  the  canning  factory. 

In  those  parts  of  the  country  where  fruit  growers'  as- 
sociations have  control  of  the  harvesting  and  packing  the 
better  methods  are  in  use,  and  the  growers  receive  more 
careful  instruction  about  picking  and  packing  their  fruit. 
The  association  at  Ashland,  Oregon,  issued  the  following 
instructions  in  1910  for  its  berry  growers:  "Strawberries 
are  graded  'A'  and  *B.'  The  'A'  grade  berries  must  be  nice 
in  appearance,  firm  and  clean;  smallest  berry  for  'A'  grade 
should  be  of  such  size  that  four  berries  will  form  one  row 
along  the  side  of  the  cup;  face  the  'A'  grade  with  medium 
size  berries;  do  not  put  the  extra  large  berries  on  top. 
The  *B'  grade,  firm  and  clean,  no  culls,  and  need  not  be 
faced.  Stems  on  all  strawberries  should  be  about  half  an 
inch  long.  Pick  in  the  mornings  only,  and  keep  dry  and 
cool;  do  not  let  crates  or  picking  crates  set  in  sun.  De- 
liver to  warehouse  before  10:30  a.  m.  Use  wagon  with 
springs  and  cover  fruit.  Make  rule  for  pickers  that  ber- 
ries must  not  be  carried  in  hand  but  must  be  transferred 
to  cup  at  once  after  picking.  Berries  should  be  handled 
as  little  as  possible.  Fill  cups  about  half  an  inch  above 
the  rim:  fill  corners;  pack  firmly,  but  do  not  press.  In 


86  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

picking  blackberries,  raspberries  and  logans,  remove  all 
stems  and  pick  as  soon  as  berries  come  off  readily.  Be 
careful  to  not  put  overripe  or  crushed  fruit  in  cups,  as  it 
will  cause  the  entire  lot  to  mould.  Use  no  small  or  dried 
berries.  Especial  care  is  required  to  fill  the  corners;  if 
not  done,  shipping  causes  berries  to  sink  in  cup.  Currants 
and  gooseberries  are  shipped  in  crates  and  cups,  same  as 
strawberries.  Get  instructions  from  manager  as  to  time 
and  condition  of  picking.  Mark  grower's  name  in  upper 
left  hand  corner  of  crate.  Attention  to  details  gives  sat- 
isfaction to  customers  and  keeps  up  the  price." 

"Shed  packing,"  as  it  is  called,  has  found  favor  with 
the  strawberry  growers  at  Pierce  City,  Mo.,  where  the 
association  has  made  a  fine  reputation  for  its  pack  and 
has  been  able  to  realize  from  15  to  35  cents  per  crate  above 
the  average  market  price.  To  accomplish  this  the  berries 
are  culled  at  the  packing  shed.  There  the  force  of  help 
is  divided  into  cullers,  graders  and  packers,  over  whom  is 
the  shed  inspector.  About  two-thirds  of  the  force  cull 
and  grade;  the  other  one-third  being  divided  up  into  pack- 
ers and  finishers.  To  facilitate  the  work  of  packing,  trays 
or  pans  have  been  contrived  in  the  shape  of  a  flat,  shallow 
tin  scoop  tapering  from  8  to  10  inches  in  width  at  the 
handle  to  about  4^  inches  at  the  other  end,  and  from  about 
12  to  14  inches  long.  These  trays  expose  the  surface  of  all 
the  berries  in  such  a  way  that  the  faulty  ones  may  be 
quickly  culled  out.  The  good  fruit  remaining  is  then 
emptied  into  the  box  from  which  it  originally  came,  and 
additional  berries  are  added  to  make  it  nicely  rounded. 
Every  box  and  crate  prepared  for  shipment  must  be  exam- 
ined by  the  inspector  and  receive  his  stamp  of  approval 
before  being  shipped. 

Grapes 

There  are  a  great  many  different  kinds  of  grapes  grown 
in  this  country,  yet  there  are  but  two  styles  or  type  of 
packages  in  general  use.  One  of  these  is  the  "Climax" 
basket  that  is  used  for  the  Concord  class  of  grapes,-  and 
finds  its  most  extensive  use  in  the  central  and  eastern 


Peaches  87 

portions  of  the  country,  while  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where 
the  Vinifera  type,  such  as  Cornichon,  Tokay,  etc.,  are 
most  extensively  grown,  the  four-basket  crates  are 
mostly  used.  There  are  various  sizes  of  Climax  baskets, 
holding  3,  5,  8  and  10  pounds  of  grapes,  and  are  sold  intact 
to  the  consumer.  With  the  grapes  from  the  Pacific  coast 
they  are  usually  sold  by  the  pound  on  the  retail  stands, 
the  average  consumer  rarely  buying  so  much  as  one  basket, 
which  may  weigh  as  much  as  five  pounds.  The  Malaga 
grapes,  that  reach  the  Eastern  markets  in  midwinter,  are 
packed  in  half  barrels  with  the  spaces  filled  with  cork 
dust.  In  such  packages  the  grapes  will  carry  better  and 
keep  for  a  longer  time  than  when  packed  in  baskets  as 
other  varieties. 

In  some  of  the  large  grape  growing  districts  of  the 
East  the  grapes  are  cut  from  the  vines  in  the  field  and 
laid  into  lug  boxes  that  will  hold  about  fifty  pounds.  These 
are  taken  to  the  packing  house  immediately,  where  they 
are  allowed  to  stand  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours  to  wilt. 
They  may  stand  for  several  days  if  the  weather  is  cool,  and 
will  pack  into  the  baskets  very  much  more  firmly  after 
wilting  than  when  cut  from  the  vines. 

Growers  in  some  of  the  smaller  sections  do  not  repack 
their  grapes  in  the  packing  house,  but  pick  directly  into 
the  shipping  baskets.  When  filled  the  baskets  are  set 
under  the  vines  where  they  will  be  out  of  the  sun.  In 
picking,  the  grapes  are  carefully  arranged  in  the  baskets 
and  well  heaped  up.  After  standing  for  a  day  or  so  they 
will  have  wilted  sufficiently  so  that  the  lid  can  be  placed 
on  the  basket. 

Peaches 

The  packages  for  this  fruit  as  it  is  packed  in  each  of 
the  many  states  where  it  is  grown  commercially  are  as 
variable  as  for  any  other  kind  of  fruit.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  these  are  the  Climax  basket  used  in  Michigan,  the 
half-bushel  and  bushel  basket,  and  the  Delaware  or  Jersey 
basket,  the  4  and  6-basket  carrier  and  the  flat  box  of  the 
Pacific  coast  states.  Of  all  of  these  the  last  named  is  the 


88  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

only  one  which  requires  any  especial  skill  in  packing.  The 
6-basket  carriers  require  that  the  peaches  be  graded  into 
fruits  of  uniform  size  and  placed  in  the  little  baskets  in 
such  manner  as  to  make  a  good  appearance.  Some  skill 
is  required  to  do  this  in  the  best  manner,  but  it  is  easily 
learned,  and  after  a  day  or  so  any  one  who  is  careful  can 
pack  such  baskets  perfectly. 

As  a  general  rule  the  peach  growers  in  all  parts  of  the 
country  pack  their  peaches  in  especially  arranged  packing 
houses.  These  houses  are  arranged  so  that  the  wagons 
delivering  the  fruit  from  the  pickers  in  the  field  can  drive 
up  to  one  end  or  side  of  the  house  and  unload  directly  on 
the  floor  ot  the  house.  The  house  is  provided  with  long 
tables  usually  having  a  canvas  bottom,  and  at  convenient 
distances  apart  on  each  side  of  the  table  are  brackets  or 
racks  of  such  size  as  to  hold  the  baskets  of  the  packers. 
The  packers  grade  and  pack  at  the  same  time.  Culls  are 
dropped  through  a  chute  in  the  table  to  baskets  on  the 
floor,  and  the  packers  put  fruits  of  uniform  size  into  each 
basket. 

The  bushel  baskets  are  usually  packed  in  the  field  un- 
less the  crop  is  very  defective,  necessitating  the  sorting 
out  of  rotten  or  overripe  stock  at  the  house.  The  Climax 
and  Delaware  baskets  are  sometimes  packed  in  the  field, 
although  the  growers  who  make  the  better  packs  work  the 
fruit  over  in  the  packing  house  and  sort  into  two  or  three 
grades. 

In  the  great  peach  growing  sections  of  the  far  Western 
states  the  packing  of  fruit  has  been  reduced  to  a  fine  art 
and  it  is  in  these  sections  that  one  finds  the  greatest  uni- 
formity in  the  styles  of  packages  and  packing.  About  the 
only  package  that  finds  commercial  use  in  the  West  is  the 
light  pine  box  having  dimensions  of  about  lV/2  by  18 
inches  and  4,  ±l/2  and  5  inches  deep  inside.  The  ends  arc 
made  of  3-4  inch  or  11-16  material  and  sides  of  1-4  inch 
wood.  In  these  boxes  the  peaches  are  packed  only  two 
deep,  so  that  the  lower  layer  is  not  bruised  by  the  weight 
of  the  fruit  above,  and  the  contents  cool  very  quickly  when 
put  in  an  iced  refrigerator  car  or  cold  storage. 


Handling  the   Fruit  89 

The  majority  of  the  associations  in  the  West  make 
three  grades,  and  while  they  are  known  by  different  names 
in  different  parts  of  the  West,  they  are  practically  uniform 
in.  size  of  fruit.  These  grades  are  known  by  the  name  of 
"extra,"  ''90s"  and  "108s;M  "extra  fancy,"  "fancy,"  "choice," 
"F,"  "A,"  "B,"  etc. 

The  "extras"  or  "extra  fancy"  is  applied  to  peaches  that 
will  pack  not  more  than  80  to  the  box;  "90s"  should  run 
from  81  to  94  to  a  box,  and  the  "108s"  from  95  to  108.  In 
the  peach  growing  section  of  Oregon  the  "F"  grade  is. 
applied  to  peaches  running  not  more  than  66  to  the  box; 
"A"  to  76  and  "B"  to  88.  In  this  district  a  fourth  grade 
running  to  100  per  box  has  been  packed,  but  has  not  been 
a  profitable  size,  and  peaches  running  less  than  88  are  used 
up  locally  or  canned. 

Handling  the  Fruit 

The  first  essential  in  packing  peaches  for  the  commer- 
cial market  and  especially  where  they  are  to  be  shipped 
for  some  distance,  is  to  have  the  fruit  picked  in  the  right 
way  and  at  the  right  time.  Peaches  which  are  picked  too 
green  or  too  ripe  will  not  prove  satisfactory  on  the  mar- 
ket. In  picking  pick  with  the  hand  and  not  the  fingers. 
Reach  over  the  peach  so  that  the  fruit  rests  in  the  palm  of 
the  hand  and  separate  the  fruit  from  the  stem  by  a  twist 
from  the  wrist  and  not  by  a  pull.  Peaches  picked  in  this 
manner  will  not  show  the  least  mark,  even  on  the  ripest 
fruit,  and  the  fruit  should  be  laid  in  the  basket  and  not 
dropped.  The  fruit  must  be  handled  as  carefully  as  eggs. 

Grading  of  the  peaches  is  done  as  the  fruit  is  packed, 
as  it  is  the  general  opinion  among  experienced  packers 
that  the  fruit  can  be  handled  in  that  manner  with  the  least 
amount  of  damage.  Grading  machines  have  been  in  use 
to  some  extent,  but  they  have  not  proven  altogether  satis- 
factory as  yet  on  account  of  the  bruising  which  is  caused. 
Yet  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  satisfactory  ma- 
chines will  be  developed  within  the  next  few  years  that 
will  handle  peaches  with  but  little  more  bruising  than  they 
receive  at  the  hands  of  careful  pickers. 


90 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


Upon  being  delivered  from  the  field  the  peaches  are 
carefully  emptied  out  upon  tables  having  well  padded  or 
canvas  bottoms.  At  the  sides  of  the  tables  are  racks  hold- 
ing two  or  three  boxes  slightly  inclined,  one  box  for  each, 
grade,  and  the  fruit  is  packed  from  the  lower  end  up. 
Peaches  packed  in  these  Western  sections  are  each  wrap- 


Interior   of   a   peach-packing   shed   at   Koshkonong, 
showing  the  packing  table,  bushel  baskets  in  which  the  fruit 
is  delivered  from  the  field,  and  a  six-basket  crate. 


ped  in  paper.  This  operation  is  easily  learned  with  a  little 
experience,  although  it  will  go  rather  slowly  at  first.  The 
papers  used  for  wrapping  are  cut  7x7  or  8x8  and  kept  in 
suitable  trays  at  the  side  of  the  boxes  and  within  easy 
reach  for  the  packers. 


Handling  the  Fruit  91 

The  packers  stand  with  one  side  to  the  table.  A  peach 
is  picked  up  in  one  hand  and  a  paper  in  the  other,  the  paper 
being  caught  about  the  center  between  the  thumb  and 
first  finger  in  such  a  manner  that  the  paper  lays  flat  on 
the  palm  of  the  hand.  The  peach  is  then  quickly  placed 
in  the  center  of  the  paper,  and  the  paper  closed  over  the 
fruit  by  closing  the  fingers  and  finally  finished  by  a  deft 
little  twist  into  the  box  so  that  the  corners  close  over  the 
fruit  and  serve  as  a  pad  between  the  box  and  fruit.  After 
the  first  layer  has  been  completed  the  second  layer  is  put 
in  in  the  same  manner,  and  the  box  is  ready  for  the  nailing 
press. 

There  are  many  styles  of  arranging  peaches  in  the 
boxes,  depending  largely  on  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
fruit.  It  is  of  great  assistance  to  the  inexperienced  pack- 
ers to  have  a  "size  board"  or  specimen  peaches  of  the  dif- 
ferent grades  continually  before  them,  so  that  by  compar- 
ing these  frequently  the  grades  can  be  kept  quite  constant. 
The  ''straight"  pack  in  which  the  fruit  is  arranged  in 
straight  rows  up  and  down  and  across  the  box  is  the  sim- 
plest style  of  packing  and  one  that  has  been  extensively 
used,  but  is  being  displaced  by  the  "diamond"  or  "diag- 
onal" pack,  since  in  the  straight  pack  each  fruit  rests 
directly  on  top  of  others  and  is  thus  more  easily  bruised. 
In  the  diamond  pack  the  fruits  are  placed  so  that  each 
specimen  is  in  the  hollow  between  several  others,  and  long 
experience  has  shown  that  this  style  of  packing  causes  less 
damage  than  the  straight  pack. 

The  diamond  packs  are  arranged  so  that  the  peaches 
come  in  double  rows  across  the  box  containing  2-2,  3-2, 
3-3,  4-3,  4-4,  4-5,  etc.,  corresponding  to  the  "half  tiers"  in 
the  boxed  apple  package.  In  this  style  of  packing,  the 
"3-2"  for  example,  three  peaches  are  placed  in  the  lower 
end  of  the  box,  one  in  each  'corner,  and  the  third  exactly 
in  the  middle.  In  the  second  row  there  are  only  two 
peaches  which  are  placed  in  the  spaces  between  those  in 
the  first  row.  In  the  third  row  three  peaches  are  placed 
in  the  spaces  left  by  the  fruit  in  the  second  row,  and  come 
directly  above  the  fruit  in  the  first  row,  In  the  fourth 


92  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

row  there  will  be  two  fruits  again,  and  be  directly  above 
the  ones  in  the  second  row.  After  the  first  layer  is  about 
half  filled  in  the  fruit  needs  to  be  "drawn  down"  snugly 
so  as  to  give  the  box  a  little  bulge  at  the  side,  but  must 
be  done  without  bruising  the  fruit.  The  layer  is  then 
completed.  In  placing  the  second  layer  in  the  box  the 
first  row  at  the  lower  end  will  contain  two  fruits  placed 
over  the  spaces  between  the  fruit  in  the  lower  layer.  The 
second  row  contains  three  fruits,  and  so  on  alternately  3 
and  2  until  the  box  is  filled. 

Apples 

Apples  for  the  commercial  market  are  packed  in  fewer 
styles  of  packages  than  any  other  kind  of  fruit.  Barrels 
holding  approximately  100  quarts,  and  boxes  holding  a 
bushel  are  the  packages  most  extensively  used.  Some 
trifling  differences  are  made  in  the  sizes  of  barrels  by  the 
laws  of  the  different  states,  but  they  are  approximately 
28J/2  inches  long,  with  heads  17 J^  inches  in  diameter,  and 
64  inches  in  circumference  at  the  bulge  on  the  outside. 
There  is  a  slight  difference  made  in  the  exact  dimensions 
of  the  bushel  boxes,  on  account  of  the  adaptability  of 
certain  sizes  to  some  sizes  and  shapes  of  apples. 

It  takes  but  little  skill  to.pack  a  barrel  of  apples.  A 
little  experience,  combined  with  the  careful  sorting  of  the 
fruit  will  enable  any  good  workman  to  pack  a  barrel  of 
apples,  for  the  reason  that  the  fruit  is  not  arranged  in  the 
barrel  in  layers  or  rows,  but  the  apples  poured  in  and  al- 
lowed to  lay  in  whatever  position  they  will. 

In  putting  up  the  most  fancy  package  of  apples  in  bar- 
rels it  is  best  to  line  the  barrel  with  white  or  manilla 
paper,  with  a  piece  of  lace  paper  over  the  face  and  a  thick 
pad  between  the  fruit  and  the  head  to  prevent  the  apples 
from  being  bruised.  .  % 

A  barrel  ready  for  packing  is  placed  in  front  of  the 
packer  with  the  bottom  end  out  and  the  head,  or  top  end 
down.  A  few  well  sorted  apples  are  then  arranged  with 
the  stem  ends  down,  so  as  to  completely  cover  the  head. 


Apples  93 

A  second  row  may  be  placed  in  a  similar  manner  if  the 
barrel  is  to  be  packed  nicely,  otherwise  the  barrel  is  filled 
with  apples  of  the  same  size  and  grade  as  the  face  layer, 
by  lowering  into  the  barrel  a  basket  that  can  be  emptied 
Avith  the  least  liability  of  damaging  the  fruit  by  bruising. 
The  barrel  is  shaken  frequently  while  it  is  being  filled  to 
cause  the  apples  to  settle,  but  must  not  be  done  so  vigor- 
ously as  to  bruise  the  fruit.  When  the  barrel*  is  full  a 
layer  of  apples  is  then  placed  on  top,  all  with  the  stems 
up,  and  should  stand  up  above  the  top  of  the  barrel  for  a 
couple  of  inches. 


A  Nicely  Faced  Barrel  of  Apples. 

The  chime  hoops  are  then  loosened  up  a  little  and  the 
top  one  removed.  The  barrel-press  and  head  are  then 
put  in  place  and  the  head  forced  into  position.  While  the 
pressure  is  being  applied  a  few  strokes  with  a  hammer  di- 
rects the  head  into  place,  when  the  chime  hoops  are  driven 
down  and  nailed;  the  lining  hoops  are  then  nailed  fust  and 
the  press  removed.  The  barrel  is  then  turned  over  and 
the  name  of  the  variety  and  name  of  the  grower  are  sten- 
ciled on  the  end  that  was  downward,  and  which  now 
becomes  the  "face." 


94 


The  Fru it-Growers  Guide-Book 


A  barrel  thus  packed  opens  up  with  a  nice  show  of 
evenly  packed  apples  on  the  face  and  makes  a  good  appear- 
ance. The  necessity  of  filling  the  apples  above  the  chime 
and  then  forcing  them  down  into  the  barrel  must  be  done 
to  get  the  fruit  in  tight  enough  to  prevent  it  from  shaking 
around  and  bruising.  Apples  packed  firmly  will  bruise  much 
less  easily  than  those  packed  less  firmly.  In  forcing  the 
bottom  of  the  barrel  into  place  the  lower  layer  of  apples 
will  often  be  somewhat  bruised,  and  the  juice  may  fly  out 


Apples  are  usually  barreled  in  the  orchard,  thereby  doing- 
away  with  the  necessity  of  hauling  the  fruit  to  and  from  the 
packing  house. 

of  some  of  them,  but  this  rarely  causes  any  damage,  as  the 
juice  is  quickly  absorbed  by  the  wood  and  the  slight 
breaks  in  the  skin  dry  up  and  but  little  rot  will  result. 

Packing  apples  in  boxes  is  a  fine  art,  requiring  more 
skill  to  do  properly,  than  almost  any  other  single  operation 
in  the  fruit  business.  The  box  as  a  package  for  apples  is 
comparatively  new  and  has  reached  its  most  extensive 


Apples  95 

application  in  the  irrigated  sections  of  the  West,  although 
on  account  of  its  adaptability,  and  the  fact  that  it  has 
great  advantages  as  the  package  for  fancy  fruit  it  is  being 
adopted  in  all  of  the  Eastern  fruit-growing  sections. 

In  the  Western  fruit-growing  sections  it  is  the  only 
commercial  package  for  apples,  and  possibly  always  will 
be,  but  in  the  East  it  is  hardly  possible  that  it  will  displace 
the  barrel  as  an  exclusive  apple  package.  This  is  for  the 
reason  that  in  the  Eastern  states  barrels  can  be  had  at  a 
price  proportionately  less  than  boxes.  The  barrel  is  a 
hardwood  package,  while  the  box  is  of  soft  wood -and  is 
cheaper  in  the  West  on  account  of  being  closer  to  the 
great  forests  of  white  pine  and  spruce.  The  box  has  been 
adopted  in  the  West,  not  only  because  it  was  the  cheaper 
package,  but  because  it  reduced  the  amount  of  damage  to 
the  fruit  in  transit  to  the  minimum,  and  also  because  it 
was  the  only  package  that  enabled  the  growers  to  put  up  a 
uniform  and  a  fancy  pack. 

The  sizes  of  these  Western  boxes  have  been  varied 
from  time  to  time  in  an  attempt  to  get  the  box  to  fit  the 
apple.  But  after  a  number  of  years  experimenting,  boxes 
of  only  two  sizes  have  been  adopted.  One  of  these  is 
known  as  the  "standard,"  and  is  lO^xll^xlS  inside  meas- 
urement, and  contains  2,176  cubic  inches  without  the  bulge. 
The  "special"  box  is  10x11x20  inside  measurement,  contain- 
ing 2,200  cubic  inches  without  bulge,  and  is  used  for  varie- 
ties which  run  too  long  to  pack  in  the  standard  box. 

The  first  essential  in  packing  apples  in  boxes  is  to  have 
perfect  fruit.  Nothing  but  the  very  finest  apples  should 
go  into  boxes  in  the  Eastern  states,  and  nothing  grading 
lower  than  "choice"  is  packed  in  the  Western  sections. 
Packing  tables  having  well-padded  or  canvas  bottoms  are 
next  in  importance,  and  are  so  arranged  that  the  packers 
will  have  a  rack  sufficiently  large  to  hold  two  boxes  at  a 
convenient  height  in  front  of  them  for  easy  packing.  A 
cull  box  should  be  on  the  floor  behind  the  packer,  into 
which  the  culls  can  be  dropped  as  the  fruit  is  sorted  on 
the  tables. 


96  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

The  fruit  as  it  is  brought  from  the  field  in  lug-boxes  is 
carefully  emptied  out  on  the  tables  and  sorted  into  the 
various  sizes  or  grades  to  be  packed.  Each  size  is  deter- 
mined by  the  diameter  of  the  apple  from  cheek  to  cheek. 
For  the  smallest  size  packed  the  diameter  is  2{/2  inches.  In 
some  sections-  it  is  the  custom  to  have  sorters  or  graders 
who  have  that  particular  bit  of  the  work  to  do,  and  in 
other  sections  the  packers  must  sort  their  fruit  as  they 
pack.  In  other  sections  again  the  graders  must  wipe  the 
dust  and  spray  from  each  fruit  as  it  is  passed  to  the  pack- 
ers. Cotton  flannel  mitts,  with  the  fleecy  side  turned  out, 
makes  the  most  satisfactory  material.  The  apples  are 
given  a  twist  between  the  gloves,  just  enough  to  remove 
any  spray  that  may  be  sticking  to  the  fruit,  but  not  hard 
enough  to  polish.  Polishing  is  detrimental,  as  it  reduces 
the  keeping  qualities. 

Grading  machines  for  sizing  apples  have,  up  to  the 
present  time,  not  been  altogether  satisfactory,  as  they 
bruised  the  apples  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  them  unfit 
for  packing  under  the  Western  standard.  A  machine  built 
on  altogether  new  principles  has  recently  been  patented  by 
Mr.  James  M.  Hamilton,  of  Grand  Junction,  Colo.,  and 
gives  promise  of  proving  very  satisfactory.  This  machine 
is  described  in  The  Fruit-Grower  of  December,  1910,  from 
which  the  following  quotation  is  taken: 

Hamilton  Grading  Machine 

"No  packer,  no  matter  how  expert  he  may  be,  can  put  up 
a  first-class  pack  from  ungraded  fruit.  Some  growers 
object  to  the  grading  of  fruit,  believing  the  packers  should 
be  able  to  grade  as  they  pack,  but  when  a  packer  is  putting 
up  forty  or  more  boxes  .of  apples  a  day,  the  fruit  is  being 
handled  so  rapidly  that  small  defects,  such  as  punctures  in 
the  skin,  will  be  passed  unnoticed  and  result  in  defective 
packing.  Grading  ahead  of  the  packers  makes  it  possible, 
for  the  packers  to  work  more  rapidly,  as  by  having  the 
fruit  sized,  they  do  not  have  to  "paw"  over  the  fruit  on 
the  table  in  order  to  get  the  size  needed  to  fill  the  box. 


Hamilton  Grading   Machine  97 

"The  grading  is  usually  done  in  the  Northwestern  fruit 
sections  by  persons  who  desire  to  learn  packing.  The  new 
person  is  started  into  grading  with  a  grading  board  having 
circular  holes  bored  through  it  the  size  of  the  apples  in 
each  grade.  One  of  these  holes  is  3^  inches  in  diameter, 
one  3  inches  and  one  2^/4  inches.  All  apples  that  will  not 
go  through  the  3l/2-inch  hole  are  placed  in  a  bin  by  them- 
selves, and  are  packed  as  three  and  one-half  tier.  The 
3  inch,  and  up  to  3J/2,  are  placed  by  themselves,  and  are 
packed  as  four-tier,  while  those  between  3  and  2^4  inches 
are  packed  as  four  and  one-half  tier,  and  those  smaller  than 
23/4  are  packed  five  tier. 

"Some  growers  who  do  not  put  up  the  very  fancy  packs 
make  but  two  sizes,  8^2  and  4l/2  tiers.  The  graders  size 
the  fruit  so  as  to  go  into  these  two  packs.  A  grader  after 
using  a  sizing  board  for  half  a  day  or  so,  will  become  so 
accustomed  to  the  sizes  of  the  apples  in  the  different 
grades  that  the  grading  board  will  not  be  needed  for  every 
apple,  but  it  is  always  a  good  plan  to  keep  the  grading 
board  or  ring  within  convenient  reach,  and  occasionally  try 
the  apples  to  see  that  the  proper  sizes  are  being  kept.  A 
person's  eyes  quickly  become  fatigued,  and  it  is  easy  to  let 
the  fruit  increase  so  gradually  in  size  as  to  be  unnoticed 
by  the  grader,  unless  tried  several  times  a  day  with  a  siz- 
ing board. 

"The  essential  features  of  the  Hamilton  grader  are  two 
long  parallel  troughs,  each  about  six  inches  wide,  slightly 
inclined;  each  trough,  or  chute,  is  divided  into  three  sec- 
tions, or  compartments,  the  bottom  of  each  of  these  sec- 
tions being  formed  by  a  heavy  rubber  belt.  Thus  there  are 
really  three  of  these  rubber  belts  for  each  trough,  and  each 
belt  has  a  succession  of  holes;  the  holes  of  each  section 
are  one-fourth  inch  larger  in  diameter  than  the  preceding 
section,  to  accommodate  apples  of  different  sizes. 

"Our  illustrations  show  the  general  appearance  of  the 
grader.  One  of  the  troughs  is  for  apples  of  'fancy'  grade, 
the  other  for  'choice'  grade.  The  troughs  have  padded 
sides,  and  as  the  bottom  is  rubber  the  apples  are  not 


98  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

bruised  at  all.  Most  graders  which  have  been  made  here- 
tofore have  rolled  the  apples  down  an  inclined  chute  and 
as  they  pass  down  this  chute  they  drop  through  holes 
which  are  graduated  in  size  from  the  smallest  to  the  larg- 
est. These  graders  are  bound  to  bruise  the  fruit  more  or 
less,  and  have  not  been  satisfactory. 

"The  Hamilton  grader  does  not  roll  the  apples;  instead, 
they  are  carried  along  on  moving  belts  and  pass  from  one 
section  to  the  next,  with  a  corresponding  larger  hole,  with- 
out any  bruising.  If  an  apple  does  not  drop  through  a  hole 
in  the  first  belt,  it  is  carried  to  the  next  section,  with  a 
larger  hole;  it  may  drop  through  there  into  a  bin  with  a 
canvas  bottom,  or  it  may  be  carried  to  the  next  section, 
with  a  still  larger  opening. 

Fruit  Is  Sorted  by  Hand 

"The  apples  are  dumped  from  the  picking  boxes  into 
the  two  bins  at  the  head  of  the  grader.  Since  the  machine 
grades  only  as  to  size,  men  or  women  stand  at  each  side 
of  these  bins  to  sort  the  fruit  as  to  color,  freedom  from 
blemishes,  etc.  Two  sorters  can  work  at  each  of  these 
bins.  They  simply  sort  the  apples  as  to -color,  worm  in- 
jury, etc.,  placing  the  perfect,  well  colored  apples  in  the 
chute  marked  'Fancy'  and  the  apples  which  are  a  litle  off 
color  into  the  chute  marked  'Choice.'  Culls  are  dropped 
into  a  box  at  their  feet. 

"The  belt  forming  the  first  division  of  the  'Fancy'  chute 
is  perforated  with  holes  two  and  one-half  inches  in  diam- 
eter; apples  of  less  diameter  fall  through  and  are  packed 
in  the  lower  grades.  It  will  be  noted  in  the  illustrations 
that  curtains  hang  down  at  intervals  in  the  troughs;  these 
are  made  of  heavy  ducking  and  are  merely  to  prevent  ap- 
ples riding  the  belt  between  the  holes,  and  they  drag  every 
apple  into  an  opening. 

"Now,  it  frequently  happens  that  apples  are  of  smaller 
diameter  one  way  than  another,  and  may  fail  to  go  through 
the  opening  in  the  belt  in  one  way,  whereas  if  turned  they 
would  go  through  all  right.  To  insure  that  all  apples  have 


m$ 


100 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


abundant  opportunity  to  go  through,  Mr.  Hamilton  has 
arranged  a  series  of  'joggers'  which  are  below  the  belts 
and  which  catch  the  apples  partly  through  the  holes  and 
turn  them  over  slightly  as  they  pass  along.  These  'jog- 
gers' are  set  at  an  angle,  slanting  with  the  direction  the 
belt  travels;  they  are  held  by  slight  springs  so  that  if  an 
apple  were  firmly  caught  in  one  of  the  openings  it  could 
not  be  bruised  in  the  slightest  in  passing  these  'joggers;' 
the  springs  would  simply  permit  the  latter  to  drop  back 


Upper  end  of  the  machine   with   bins   of  apples   on   each 
side.     The  sorters  work  at  these  bins. 

and  allow  the  apples  to  pass.  As  there  are  about  three  of 
these  'joggers'  on  each  division  of  the  belt,  every  apple  is 
given  three  slight  turns  as  it  passes,  and  if  it  has  a  smaller 
diameter  which  will  permit  its  passage  through  the  hole,  it 
is  pretty  sure  to  fall  'through  before  it  passes  to  the  belt 
with  the  larger  openings. 

"The  openings  in  the  belt  of  the  second  section  are  two 
and  three-quarters  inches  in  diameter.     We  will  assume 


Fruit  Is  Sorted   By  Marrtf-  {  j<  :<:  iv  \  401 

that  the  apple  we  have  started  on  its  journey  through  the 
grader  has  persistently  declined  to  pass  through  the  open- 
ings in  the  first  belt;  but  if  it  is  less  than  two  and  three- 
quarter  inches  in  diameter  it  will  drop  through  the  open- 
ings in  the  second  section  into  a  bin  at  one  side  having  a 
canvas  bottom.  If  this  apple  should  be  more  than  two 
and  three-quarter  inches  in  diameter,  and  less  than  three 
inches,  it  will  drop  through  the  third  section,  for  the  holes 
in  this  belt  are  three  inches  in  diameter.  If  it  is  larger 
than  three  inches  then  it  passes  on  out  at  the  end  of  the 
chute. 


In  sorting-,   "fancy"   apples  are  placed  in   one  chute   and 
"choice"   in  the  other.     The  machine  does  the  rest. 


"The  chute  for  the  'choice'  grade  is  arranged  exactly 
the  same,  except  that  the  openings  in  the  first  belt  are  two 
and  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter,  the  next  section  has  holes 
two  and  a  half  inches,  and  the  third  section  has  openings 
two  and  three-fourths  inches  in  diameter, 


Fruitgrowers  Guide-Book 
Packers  Each  Handle  One  Size  Apples 

"It  will  be  noted  there  are  three  bins  on  each  side  of 
the  grader.  On  the  'Fancy'  side  the  first  bin  contains  only 
perfect  apples  which  are  two  inches  and  a  half  in  diam- 
eter and  less  than  two  and  three-quarters;  the  next  bin 
contains  perfect  apples  two  and  three-fourths  inches  in 
diameter,  and  less  than  three  inches;  the  last  bin  contains 
perfect  apples  three  inches  or  more  in  diameter.  On  the 
'Choice'  side  the  same  is  true,  except  that  the  apples  are 
one-fourth  inch  less  in  diameter,  and  of  course  they  are  off 
color  in  some  way,  and  therefore  are  of  second  grade. 

"The  work  of  this  machine  is  absolute  so  far  as  grading 
the  apples  as  to  size  is  concerned;  if  the  sorters  at  the  head 
of  the  machine  have  done  their  work  well  and  have  culled 
out  all  defective  fruit,  packers  can  work  from  these  bins 
with  their  eyes  shut.  Of  course  the  sorters  will  occasion- 
ally make  mistakes,  and  a  bad  apple  will  get  by  them. 
There  is  this  advantage,  however,  in  this  method  of  sort- 
ing: Their  work  can  be  inspected  in  the  bins  before  the 
apples  are  packed,  whereas  under  ordinary  conditions, 
where  the  packer  does  both  grading  and  sorting,  the  fruit 
can  be  inspected  only  after  it  is  packed,  and  then  it  is  fre- 
quently too  late  to  catch  the  bad  ones. 

"The  packers  working  for  Mr.  Hamilton  have  never 
had  any  previous  experience  in  packing  apples  in  layers, 
but  they  soon  became  so  expert  that  they  were  packing 
TOO  boxes  a«day  apiece,  and  the  work  was  well  done,  too. 
In  fact  the  packers,  with  the  aid  of  the  machine,  were  so 
speedy  with  their  work  they  were  working  only  every 
other  day  to  give  the  picking  force  opportunity  to  catch 
up  with  them.  Ordinarily  packers  are  paid  by  the  box,  but 
since  perfecting  his  grading  machine  Mr.  Hamilton  pays 
his  packers  by  the  day.  The  usual  rate  was  5  cents  per 
box;  now  the  packers  are  paid  $2  per  day,  and  if  they  pack 
100  boxes — and  they  are  doing  that  right  along — the  cost 
of  packing  was  reduced  to  2  cents  per  box,  with  an  addi- 
tional charge  for  the  sorting. 

"Scores  of  experienced  fruit  men  have  seen  the  Hamil- 


Packers  Each  Handle  One  Size  Apples  108 

ton  grader  at  work  this  season,  and  all  pronounce  it  a  suc- 
cess. Mr.  John  F.  Moore,  manager  of  the  Grand  Junction 
Fruit  Growers'  Association,  believes  that  the  use  of  this 
machine  will  solve  the  problem  of  the  Grand  Valley  grow- 
ers in  getting  packers  who  can  put  up  the  tier  pack.  Mr. 
Hamilton's  experience  has  been  satisfactory,  and  he  be- 


Looking-  down  on  the  belts.     The  holes  In  the  upper  por- 
tion are  one-fourth  inch  larger  than  in  the   lower. 

lieves  that  he  can  layer  his  apples  as  cheaply  now  as  he 
formerly  could  pack  them  with  the  old  "jumble"  pack.  The 
machine  certainly  looks  like  a  winner,  and  we  believe  it 
will  help  to  solve  the  problem  of  better  grading  and  pack- 
ing everywhere." 


104  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Packing  the  Boxes 

Fruit  that  has  the  skin  punctured  should  not  be  packed. 
Apples  that  have  lost  their  stems,  provided  the  skin  is  not 
broken  where  a  stem  is  pulled  out,  may  be  packed,  al- 
though too  many  such  should  not  be  put  in  any  one  box. 
First  quality  fruit  must  have  the  stem  left  in  the  apple. 


Four  tier  apples  in  a  box  packed  "straight." 

There  are  three  styles  of  packs  used  in  the  apple  sec- 
tions of  the  Western  states.  One  of  these,  the  "jumble" 
pack,  is  confined  to  Colorado  and  portions  of  Utah,  but 
will  possibly  be  displaced  in  a  few  years  by  the  tier  pack 
of  the  Northwest.  In  the  far  Northwest,  two  other  styles, 
known  as  "straight"  and  "diagonal"  tier  packs  are  in  use. 


Packing  the  Boxes  105 

The  straight  pack  includes  the  three,  four  and  five  -tier 
apples,  and  the  rows  of  fruit  run  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the 
box. 

In  the  "straight"  pack  the  apples  are  placed  side  by  side 
in  rows,  so  that  each  apple  rests  directly  on  top  of  another. 
In  the  "jumble"  pack  the  first  layer  is  faced,  either  straight 
or  diagonal,  and  the  box  then  filled  with  apples  in  any 
position  they  happen  to  lay.  It  is  a  rapid  method  of  filling 
boxes,  but  does  not  make  a  fancy  package. 

The  chief  advantage  of  the  diagonal  pack  is  that  it  ac- 
commodates the  half  tiers,  such  as  the  8^2  and  4^  tier 
apples,  the  rows  of  which  seem  to  run  diagonally  to  the 
sides  of  the  box.  The  "tier"  in  each  instance  not  depend- 
ing so  much  on  the  number  of  layers  deep  as  the  number 
of  layers  wide.  The  4  tier  running  125  to  the  box,  the  4J^ 
and  5  tier  have  five  layers.  The  3^  and  4  tier  have  four 
layers.  The  4^  tier  apple  is  a  good  example  of  half- 
tier  sizes,  and  consists  of  a  size  such  that  four  apples  will 
not  fit  tightly  in  one  row,  and  there  is  not  room  in  the  row 
for  five  apples.  So,  to  make  it  4l/>,  three  apples  are  placed 
in  one  row  and  two  in  the  spaces  between,  so  that  in  the 
two  rows  there  are  five  apples,  and  in  fhe  diagonal  rows 
there  are  five  apples. 

This  diagonal  pack  is  meeting  with  much  favor  in  the 
sections  where  it  is  being  used,  as  it  is  not  so  hard  on  the 
apples  as  the  straight  pack.  In  the  straight  pack  each  fruit 
rests  directly  upon  one  below  it,  while  in  the  diagonal  it 
rests  in  the  space  between  three  or  four. 

For  fancy  fruit  it  is  the  general  custom  to  line  the  box 
with  white  paper.  The  size  of  it  being  18x24,  so  that  two 
sheets  will  line  the  box.  It  will  be  necessary  to  make  a 
double  fold  in  the  paper  at  the  corner  of  box,  in  order  to 
prevent  its  being  torn  as  the  pressure  causes  the  bottom  to 
bulge  outward.  The  object  in  having  this  paper  is  to  pro- 
tect the  fruit  from  dust  and  odors  that  may  come  through 
the  cracks  in  the  bottoms  and  along  the  sides,  and  to  add 
to  the  appearance  <of  the  package. 

In  some  sections  it  is  the  custom  to  wrap  each  apple 
with  paper  as  it  is  being  placed  in  the  box,  and  to  put  a 


106  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

layer  of  paper  between  each  layer  of  apples  to  prevent 
bruising  as  much  as  possible.  The  paper  for  wrapping, 
apples  should  be  kept  in  a  little  tray  at  the  side  of  the  box, 
and  the  paper  placed  in  the  tray  with  the  smooth  side  up, 
in  order  that  it  will  slip  through  the  hands  the  more  easily. 
It  is  most  convenient  to  wear  a  rubber  thumbstall  to  aid  in 
picking  up  the  paper,  otherwise  the  packer  must  moisten 
his  thumb  on  his  tongue  each  time  he  wraps  an  apple. 

In  some  sections  where  the  layer  pack  is  in  use,  each 
layer  is  separated  by  a  sheet  of  heavy  paper  or  cardboard, 
and  each  apple  wrapped  in  tissue  paper.  This  wrapping 
paper  is  so  arranged  about  the  fruit  that  the  corners  of  the 
paper  fold  over  the  stem  of  each  apple  and  serves  as  a 
cushion.  But  since  the  wrapping  of  each  individual  apple  is, 
at  the  present  time,  believed  to  add  nothing  to  the  keeping 
quality  of  the  fruit,  some  of  the  leading  districts  of  the 
West  do  not  wrap. 

Just  how  to  put  up  each  style  of  pack  is  a  difficult  mat- 
ter to  describe,  although  it  is  easily  learned  from  experi- 
ence. In  the  fruit  districts  of  the  Northwest  there  are  be- 
tween thirty  and  .forty  different  styles  of  packing  in  use, 
no  two  of  which  are  exactly  alike.  These  are  due  entirely 
to  the  variations  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  different  va- 
rieties of  fruit  that  are  grown.  Of  these  numerous  styles 
of  packing,  few  persons  ever  use  more  than  two  styles  in 
their  own  packing  house,  and  these  are  the  less  compli- 
cated ones. 

Packing  apples  "straight"  is  comparatively  simple,  as  it 
is  merely  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  the  fruit  in 
straight  rows  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  box.  The  rows 
will  be  three,  four  or  five  apples  wide  across  the  end  of 
the  box;  from  five  to  nine  apples  long  and  from  three  to 
five  layers  deep.  And  while  this  is  the  easiest  system  of 
packing  apples,  it  is  less  flexible,  accommodating  fruits 
of  fewer-  shapes,  and  is  by  far  the  hardest  on  the  apples, 
an  each  apple  rests  directly  on  the  apple  beneath  it. 

The  diagonal  style  of  packing  is  somewhat  less  easily 
learned,  but  it  accommodates  a  greater  variety  of  sizes  and 


Packing  the  Boxes  107 

shapes,  and  is  not  so  hard  on  the  fruit.  Taking  the  4^ 
tier  pack  as  an  example,  three  apples  are  placed  in  the 
lower  end  of  the  box,  one  being  in  each  corner  and  the 
third  exactly  half  way  between.  Into  each  of  the  hollows 
made  by  these  apples  other  apples  are  placed,  making  five 
apples  in  the  two  rows.  In  the  hollow  place  directly 


The  box. on  the  left  shows  the  beginning  of  the  first 
layer  of  a  4^ -tier  pack,  the  one  on  the  left  is  the  second 
layer  in  the  same  pack. 

over  the  apple  in  the  left-hand  corner  another  apple  is 
placed,  and  likewise  in  the  middle  space.  The  fourth  row 
is  then  started  by  putting  an  apple  between  these  two  and 
the  fifth  row  begun  with  an  apple  in  the  space  against  the 
side  of  the  box.  This  process  is  repeated  until  the  first 
layer  is  about  half  in,  when  the  fingers  of  both  hands  are 
placed  against  the  fruit  and  drawn  down  and  towards  the 
packer  in  such  a  way  as  to  pull  the  fruit  down  snug.  Com- 
plete the  layer  and  repeat  until  the  box  is  filled. 

One  important  thing  to  observe  in  putting  the  fruit  in 


108  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

the  box  is  to  so  arrange  the  fruit  in  each  layer  that  the 
layer  will  be  a  little  higher  in  the  middle  than  at  the  ends 
in  order  to  make  the  bulge  to  the  sides  and  hold  the  fruit 
in  tightly  to  prevent  bruising  by  shaking  about.  The  mat- 
ter of  obtaining  just  the  right  kind  of  a  bulge  is  one  that 


The  finished  box  of  4% -tier  apples. 

must  be  learned  by  experience.  It  is  obtained  by  using  a 
slightly  larger  apple  in  the  middle  than  at  the  ends.  It  is 
a  common  practice  among  professional  packers  to  work 
those  apples  which  are  slightly  irregular  In  shape  at  the 
ends  of  the  boxes,  turning  each  apple  so  that  its  shortest 
diameter  is  up  and  down.  Those  fruits  which  are  most 
nearly  circular  will  then  be  put  in  the  middle  of  the  box, 


Packing  the  Boxes  109 

and  when  the  pack  is  finally  finished  the  box  will  have  a 
nice  bulge  of  about  half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  on 
each  side.  The  apples  for  the  bulge  need  to  be  started 
with  the  first  layer,  as  they  cannot  be  held  until  the  last 
layer  is  in  and  then  get  a  satisfactory  bulge. 

As  each  layer  in  the  box  is  completed  a  sheet  of  layer 
paper  is  put  in,  and  when  the  box  is  filled  the  lining  papers 
are  folded  up  over  the  top  and  the  box  is  then  ready  for 
the  nailing  press,  where  the  lid  is  fastened  on. 


The  box  on  the  left  shows  the  beginning  of  a  4-tier 
"straight"  pack,  and  on  the  right  is  the  same  size  apples 
packed  "special  diagonal." 

A  special  form  of  press  is  in  use  for  this  operation,  and 
consists  of  an  arrangement  of  clamps  which  draw  down 
the  ends  of  the  lid  boards,  leaving  space  for  the  cleat  to  be 
nailed  on  top  of  the  lid,  thereby  holding  them  more  firmly 
and  preventing  their  splitting  or  pulling  loose  from  the 
strain  of  the  bulge. 

After  the  box  is  nailed  up,  stamp  the  name  of  the  va- 


110 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


riety  on  the  end  just  under  the  lid  and  mark  just  under 
it  the  number  of  apples  in  the  box.  The  fruit  buyers  want 
to  know  how  many  apples  are  in  a  box,  and  with  the  tier 
pack  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  tell  exactly  how  many  apples 
are  in  each  box.  After  the  number  of  apples  has  been 
marked,  put  on  the  number  of  tiers  and  the  number  given 
to  the  grower  by  the  association  to  which  he  may  belong. 
If  a  lithographed  label  is  used,  paste  it  on  the  other  end  of 
the  box  and  mark  it  with  the  name  of  the  variety,  tier 
and  number  of  apples. 

When  this  has  been  done  place  the  box  on  its  side  and 
thereafter  handle  it  on  the  side,  as  if  it  is  placed  so  that 
the  weight  comes  on  the  bulge  the  fruit  will  be  bruised. 

The  following  table  gives  the  size  of  the  apple  and  the 
number  in  a  standard  box  when  packed  diagonally  in  lay- 
Table  of  Apples  in  Box 

STANDARD   BOX: 


Tier 

Pack 

No.  Apples 
in  Row 

No.  Rows 
in  Width 

No.  Layers 
in  Depth 

No.  Apples 
in  Box 

3 

Straight    3 

5-5 

3 

3 

45 

3/2 

Diagonal  2-2 

4-4 

3/2 

4 

64 

3/> 

"            2-2 

4-5 

3/2 

4 

72 

3/2 

"            2-2 

5-5 

3/> 

4 

80 

3/2 

2-2 

5-6 

3/ 

4 

88 

4/2 

3-2 

6-6 

4*4 

5 

150 

4/2 

3-2 

6-7 

4l/2 

5 

163 

4/  . 

3-2 

7-7 

4/2 

5 

175 

SPECIAL  BOX: 


3 

Straight    3 

6-6 

3 

3 

;,4 

3 

3 

7-7 

3 

3 

63 

3/2 

Diagonal  2-2 

6-6 

3/2 

4 

96 

3/2 

"            2-2 

6-7 

3/ 

4 

104 

3/ 

"            2-^ 

7-7 

3/2 

4 

112 

3/ 

"            2-2 

7-8 

3/2 

4 

120 

3 

Straight    4 

8-8 

4 

4 

128 

4 

4 

9-9 

4 

4 

144 

4/ 

Diagonal  3-2 

7-8 

4/2 

5 

185 

4/2 

3-2 

8-8 

4/-5 

5 

200 

Spraying  111 


CHAPTER  V 


Spraying 

Fruit  growing  as  a  commercial  proposition  met  with 
its  greatest  boom  with  the  discovery  of  effective  means  of 
controlling  the  insect  pests  and  diseases  which  affected 
the  various  orchard  crops.  It  was  about  the. year  1876  that 
effective  insecticides  were  discovered,  this  being  through 
the  discovery  of  the  value  of  Paris  green  in  controlling 
the  potato  beetle.  Le  Baron,  the  state  entomologist  of 
Illinois,  made  the  discovery  and  suggested  at  the  time  that 
such  means  would  also  prove  effective  in  controlling  the 
damages  of  the  canker  worm.  This  suggestion  was  fol- 
lowed by  an  orchardist  in  New  York  state,  who  applied 
Paris  green  to  his  apple  trees  in  the  spring  of  1878,  and 
at  the  harvest  of  that  crop  he  found  that  the  damage  from 
codling  moth  had  also  been  very  materially  reduced.  In 
the  same  year  Prof.  J.  L.  Budd  used  London  purple  for  the 
same  purpose  in  an  orchard  in  Iowa,  finding,  as  did  the 
New  York  state  orchardist,  that  there  were  fewer  wormy 
apples  where  the  spray  had  been  applied  than  in  other 
parts  of  the  orchard.  At  first  the  fruit  growers  were  skep- 
tical of  the  value  of  the  means  of  preventing  worminess, 
so  that  up  to  1885  the  practice  had  been  in  a  purely  ex- 
perimental stage,  but  thereafter  became  accepted  as  the 
only  effective  means  of  preventing  the  damages  of  the 
codling  moth. 

The  practice  of  spraying  to  control  fungi  had  a  separate 
origin.  It  was  discovered  by  the  vineyardists  of  Bordeaux, 
France,  in  an  attempt  to  protect  their  vines  from  downy 


112 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


mildew,  a  disease  which  had  been  introduced  from  Amer- 
ica. The  effectiveness  of  this  means  of  preventing  fungous 
troubles  was  quickly  taken  up  by  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  and  the  state  experiment  stations. 
and  these  have  prosecuted  the  work  up  to  the  present  time 
with  a  persistency  and  efficiency  which  has  won  the  ad- 
miration of  the  world. 


A  Barrel  Outfit  is  Suitable  for  Small  Orchards. 


The  operation  of  spraying  has  come  to  be  regarded 
as  of  vital  importance  to  the  horticulturist,  taking  rank 
along  with  each  of  the  other  important  cultural  practices. 
Professor  L.  H.  Bailey  says  that  "Spraying  is  only  one  of 
the  several  practices  which  are  of  fundamental  importance 
in  the  care  of  fruit  plantations.  Tillage,  fertilizing,  pruning 


Spraying  113 

and  other  cardinal  methods  in  pomology  and  their  impor- 
tance is  none  the  less  because  spraying  has  proved  to  be  so 
essential.  Spraying  is  wholly  a  secondary  operation,  and 
its  importance  is  the  greater  as  the  other  care  of  the  plan- 
tation is  efficient,  for  the  value  of  the  product  is  thereby 
heightened.  Many  old  and  neglected  orchards  are  scarcely 
worth  the  trouble  and  cost  of  spraying.  The  operation  of 
spraying  is  not  always  necessary,  and  it  does  not,  there- 
fore, always  give  beneficial  results.  Unless  insect  or  fun- 
gus troubles  are  present,  there  is  no  occasion  for  the  oper- 
ation; but  inasmuch  as  these  enemies  are  nearly  always 
troublesome,  and  as  no  one  can  definitely  prognosticate 
their  absence,  spraying  comes  to  be  an  insurance.  The 
risk  is  too  great  to  allow  the  practice  to  be  omitted  in  any 
year  in  apple  and  some  other  orchards,  and  the  practice  is 
efficient  only  when  it  anticipates  trouble." 

On  this  account  and  on  account  of  the  tact  that  so 
many  fruit  growers  have  refused  to  spray,  or  spray  in  an 
inefficient  manner,  the  plant  diseases  have  been  increasing 
in  numbers  each  year  in  all  fruit  sections  so  that  it  is 
highly  important  that  every  fruit  grower  realize  the  real 
insurance  value  of  spraying  and  prepare  to  do  thorough 
and  effective  work.  In  fact  in  some  of  the  more  pro- 
gressive Western  states  where  the  fruit  growers  strive  to 
put  out  nothing  but  the  highest  class  of  products,  state 
laws  have  been  enacted  which  make  it  imperative  that  an 
orchardist  spray  his  orchard  for  the  control  of  insect 
diseases,  whether  such  pests  are  actually  present  in  the 
orchard  or  not. 

Hand  and  Power  Pumps 

In  commercial  orchard  practice  there  are  only  two  types 
of  spraying  machines  that  need  to  be  considered,  one  of 
these  is  the  pumps  that  are  operated  by  hand  and  the  other 
the  pumps  which  are  operated  by  power  derived  from 
gas,  compressed  air,  gasoline  engine  or  traction  power. 
There  are  many  different  makes  of  each  of  these  machines 
and  there  are  especially  desirable  features  connected  with 
most  all  of  them.  However,  it  is  the  universal  statement 


114  The  Fru it-Growers  Guide-Book 

of  all  practical  orchardists  who  are  making  a  success  of 
their  spraying  work,  that  the  hand  power  outfits  are  not 
suited  to  an  orchard  covering  more  than  four  or  five  acres. 
This  is  because  the  necessary  pressure  and  speed  cannot 
be  obtained  in  hand  power  machines  to  cover  the  larger 
acreage  in  the  limited  amount  of  time  that  is  available. 

In  point  of  time,  any  application  of  spray  mixture  must 
be  applied  when  it  will  do  the  most  good,  and  with  insects 
this  limits  the  number  of  working  days  to  just  a  few,  pos- 
sibly ten  days,  when  the  insects  can  be  most  effectively 
reached.  The  spraying  must  be  done  during  that  time,  as 
either  before  or  after  that  period  the  spray  mixture 
will  not  be  so  effective  as  the  insects  will  have  passed  out 
of  reach.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  fungous  diseases  and  the 
grower  must  know  something  of  the  life  and  habits  of  the 
pests  he  is  combatting. 

The  time  has  long  since  passed  when  it  is  reasonable 
for  any  orchardist  to  ask  if  it  pays  to  spray.  That  problem 
has  been  so  thoroughly  proven  and  so  widely  advertised 
that  anyone  who  asks  such  a  question,  especially  if  he  has 
been  anyway  concerned  in  fruit  growing  or  has  read,  even 
casually,  any  publication  treating  on  the  subject  of  fruit 
growing,  cannot  help  being  convinced  that  spraying  does 
pay,  and  pay  well,  when  properly  done. 

But  to  make  it  pay  the  best  the  spraying  equipment 
must  be  suited  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  must  be 
used.  The  chief  points  to  be  considered  in  this  respect  are 
the  kind  of  plants  to  be  sprayed — that  is,  whether  they  are 
strawberries,  grapes  or  tree  fruits;  the  acreage  to  be  cov- 
ered, for  if  there  are  more  than  five,  or  at  the  most  ten 
acres,  hand  power  outfits  will  not  proye  as  effective  as 
power  ma'chines.  Then  in  the  make  or  style  of  machine 
one  needs  to  consider  the  general  construction  and  ar- 
rangement of  the  outfit;  the  ease  and  convenience  of  han- 
dling under  actual  working  conditions;  the  probable  ability 
of  the  machine  to  handle  the  required  work;  the  efficiency 
and  suitability  of  the  accessories. 

In  localities  where  spraying  has  not  become  established 
as  one  of  the  important  practices  in  connection  with  or- 


Hand  and  Power  Pumps 


115 


charding  the  growers  arc  likely  to  expect  too  much  service 
from  a  single  machine,  whether  it  be  a  hand  or  power  out- 
fit. Instances  in  the  Middle  West  are  very  common  where 
the  growers  will  try  to  cover  200  or  300  acres  with  a  single 
power  machine. 


A  Power  Sprayer  in  Operation. 

There  are  several  different  makes  of  power  machines 
on  the  market,  such  as  those  deriving  their  power  from 
steam,  gasoline,  compressed  air  or  gas,  but  up  to  the  pres- 


116  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

ent  time  the  gasoline  power  machines  have  proven  them- 
selves the  most  effective,  economical  and  convenient  for 
use  under  all  ordinary  conditions.  On  steep  hillsides,  how- 
ever, the  gas  machine  possesses  decided  advantages  on  ac- 
count of  its  light  weight  and  the  nearness  to  the  ground 
at  which  the  load  can  be  carried.  But  such  machines  are 
objectionable  on  account  of  the  expense  of  the  gas  used 
for  power,  and  the  usual  lack  of  facilities  for  keeping  the 
spraying  mixture  thoroughly  agitated  while  being  applied. 
With  some  kinds  of  spray  mixtures,  too,  the  gas  possibly 
causes  some  undesirable  chemical  changes. 

In  the  selection  of  a  gasoline  power  outfit  one  must  be 
governed  to  a  large  extent  by  the  amount  of  work  that  is 
to  be  done  with  the  machine  and  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  performed.  Where  the  orchard  is  small  and  the 
interests  diversified,  it  may  be  easily  detached  and  used 
for  other  purposes  than  that  of  spraying. 

The  height  of  the  wheels  of  the  wagon  carrying  the 
spraying  machine  needs  to  be  considered  in  the  selection 
of  a  power  machine,  as  well  as  the  width  of  the  tires.  High 
wheels  reduce  draft  on  the  team,  but  increase  the  danger 
of  upsetting  on  steep  hillsides.  On  plowed  ground,  espe- 
cially in  the  spring  when  it  is  more  or  less  muddy,  wide 
tires  are  an  advantage,  but  in  rocky  land  the  narrow  tired 
wheels  are  much  more  serviceable.  In  this  connection,  no 
matter  which  is  the  height  of  the  wheels,  or  the  width  of 
the  tires,  it  is  highly  important  that  there  be  no  waste 
space  between  the  frame  and  the  engines  and  that  the 
frame  be  constructed  so  as  to  permit  of  the  shortest  pos- 
sible turns  without  cramping  or  binding  the  wheels. 

The  hand  pumps  are  very  much  more  diversified  in 
shape  and  construction  than  the  engine  power  machines, 
as  they  are  adapted  to  a  far  greater  variety  of  uses.  These 
will  vary  from  the  hand  pumps  which  can  be  mounted  on 
the  spraying  tank,  or  in  a  barrel,  or  attached  to  a  knapsack 
and  carried  on  one's  back. 

All  of  the  working  parts  should  be  of  hard  brass  or 
iron,  as  aluminum,  which  has  been  used  in  a  small  way, 


118  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

wears  too  fast.  The  nozzles  especially  need  to  be  of  brass, 
and  their  weight,  especially  for  power  machines,  is  of  no 
serious  consequence,  as  the  back  pressure  from  the  pump 
more  than  balances  the  weight.  For  general  orchard  spray- 
ing the  types  of  nozzles  are  limited  to  two.  These  are  the 
"bordeaux"  and  the  large  chambered  nozzle.  The  bor- 
deaux is  the  nozzle  which  is  most  desired  for  the  first 
spraying  for  codling  moth,  as  practiced  in  the  Western 
states.  The  other  is  the  best  for  use  when  a  mist-like 
spray  is  wanted,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Middle  Western  and 
Eastern  states  for  applying  bordeaux  mixture. 

In  sections  where  bordeaux  mixture  is  most  extensively 
used  it  will  be  an  advantage  to  have  all  of  the  working 
parts  of  the  machinery  of  brass,  which  comes  in  contact 
"with  the  liquid,  as  this  metal  is  not  corroded  by  the  spray 
mixture,  as  is  iron.  But  where  lime-sulphur  is  used  most, 
then  the  working  parts  need  to  be  of  iron  or  steel,  as  this 
mixture  corrodes  brass.  On  this  account  steel  tanks  are 
coming  into  use  in  districts  where  lime-sulphur  is  used. 
Such  tanks  are  especially  desirable,  as  they  are  lighter  and 
not  liable  to  dry  out,  do  not  become  waterlogged  and  are 
far  more  convenient  to  handle  in  the  field. 

In  all  machines  it  is  important  that  there  be  an  effective 
agitator  for  keeping  the  liquids  stirred  constantly  while 
being  applied  to  prevent  the  heavier  part  of  the  material 
from  settling  to  the  bottom  and  causing  irregularity  in  the 
strength  of  the  material  that  is  applied.  The  most  satis- 
factory agitators  for  power  machines  are  those  which  are 
built  on  the  propeller  type,  with  blades  sufficiently  long 
to  cause  vigorous  circulation  throughout  the  entire  tank  of 
mixture  when  revolved  at  the  usual  rate  of  120  revolutions 
per  minute. 

One  of  the  greatest  sources  of  lost  time  in  a  large  or- 
chard is  reloading  after  the  load  is  sprayed  out,  but  this  loss 
of  time  can  largely  be  eliminated  if  there  are  suitable  con- 
veniences for  reloading.  This  should  consist  of  a  reloading 
pump,  unless  the  mixing  station  is  on  an  elevated  platform 
above  the  level  of  the  spray  tank.  There  are  two  types  of 
reloading  pumps  that  are  available,  one  being  the  rotary 


Spraying  Materials  119 

and  the  other  a  plunger  pump,  either  of  which  is  capable 
of  handling  30  to  40  gallons  of  spray  mixture  per  minute. 
Where  bordeaux  mixture  is  used,  however,  there  is  some 
danger  from  the  rotary  pump  becoming  more  or  less  worn 
by  the  friction  with,  the  gritty  particles  in  the  lime,  and 
priming  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  get  the  pump  to  work- 
ing satisfactorily.  For  use  with  supply  tanks,  plunger 
pumps  are  probably  the  most  effective  and  satisfactory, 
since  it  is  necessary  in  this  case,  to  pump  the  prepared 
mixture  with  them. 

Spraying  Materials 

Since  the  discovery  of  effective  means  of  controlling 
insect  and  fungous  diseases  of  plants  a  great  number  of 
preparations  have  been  devised  for  the  control  of  special 
diseases  on  certain  crops.  Such  a  formidable  list  of  these 
preparations  have  been  published  that  it  would  seem  at 
first  glance  that  one  would  need  an  elaborate  chemical 
laboratory  in  order  to  prepare  the  materials.  However, 
the  years  of  scientific  and  practical  experimentation  along 
this  line  have  eliminated  many  of  these  spraying  materials 
so  that  the  plantsman  of  today  needs  know  how  to  prepare 
less  than  a  dozen  different  sprays  in  order  to  control  any 
of  the  diseases  for  which  a  remedy  is  known. 

There  are  two  distinct  groups  of  these  spraying  ma- 
terials, one  of  them,  called  insecticides,  is  for  the  control 
of  insect  diseases,  and  the  other,  called  fungicides,  for  the 
control  of  fungous  diseases.  Of  these  materials  there  are 
three  groups  of  insecticides,  suph  as  (1)  food  poisons,  (2") 
contact  poisons,  and  (3)  suffocating  poisons.  Which  of 
these  poisons  to  use  will  depend  altogether  on  the  kind  of 
insect  and  the  plant  upon  which  it  is  feeding,  so  that  for  ef- 
fective use  of  any  insecticide,  it  is  important  that  the 
plantsman  know  something  of  the  habit  of  the  insect,  and 
just  in  what  stage  of  its  life  it  is  most  easily  reached  with 
the  poison. 

(O  Food  Poisons.  These  materials  are  composed  of 
substances  which  must  be  eaten  by  the  insect  as  it  chews 


120 


The  Fru it-Growers  Guide-Book 


the  foliage  or  fruits  of  the  plants  to  be  protected,  and  for 
this  reason  kill  the  insect  by  actual  poisoning.  Of  these 
materials  compounds  containing  arsenic,  such  as  Paris 


A  convenient  method  of  making  spray  mixture.  Every 
barrel  is  plainly  labeled  so  no  mistakes  can  be  made  in 
mixing. 


green  and  lead  arsenate,  are  the  most  common,  and  arc 
applied  for  such  insects  as  the  codling  moth,  canker  worm 
or  curculio,  and  applied  either  in  water,  as  a  dry  powder 
or  mixed  with  some  substance  which  is  to  serve  as  a  bait. 


Resin-Lime   Mixture  121 

(2)  Contact   Sprays.     These   materials   are   applied   for 
the   purpose   of   destroying  those   insects   which   get   their 
nourishment    by   inserting    the    beak    into    the    plants    and 
sucking  the  sap,  rather  than  by  chewing  the  flesh  of  the 
fruit  or  the  leaves.     Plant  lice  and  scales  belong  to  this 
group    of   insects,    and    since    they    suck    their    food,    they 
cannot  be  reached  by  those  poisons  which  are  to  be  chewed 
up  and  swallowed.     These  sprays  are  more  or  less  caustic 
and  penetrating,  and  kill  by  coming  in  contact  with  the 
bodies  of  the  insects. 

(3)  Suffocation  Methods.    It  frequently  happens  that  in 
some  places,  such  as  greenhouses  and  hotbeds,  destructive 
insects  get  on  plants  which  cannot  be  sprayed  with  either 
contact  or  food  poisons,  and  the  insects  must  be  disposed 
of  by  some  means  that  suffocate  them  by  filling  up  their 
breathing  pores,  or  cause  their  death  by  irritation.     Such 
means  as  these  are  useful  only  in  the  greenhouse,  and  for 
insects  that  may  work  in  the  soil,  in  seeds,  or  on  fruits  or 
vegetables  that  are  about  ready  for  the  market.     Of  chief 
importance  among  these  suffocating  poisons  are  tobacco, 
carbon    bisulphide,  pyrethrum  and  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 

Insecticides 
Resin-Lime   Mixture 

Stock  Solution. 
Pulverized  resin,  5  pounds. 
Concentrated  lye,  1  pound. 
Fish  oil,  1  pint. 
Water,    5    gallons. 

Dissolve  the  'resin  and  oil  together  in  a  kettle  over  a 
warm  fire,  and  when  it  has  become  well  dissolved  and 
somewhat  cooled  off,  add  slowly  the  lye  and  stir  hard. 
To  the  mixture  add  about  two  gallons  of  water  and  boil 
it  hard  for  about  an  hour,  or  until  the  mixture  will  dissolve 
in  cold  water.  When  it  has  reached  this  condition  add 
enough  water  to  make  five  gallons,  and  use  this  as  the 
stock  solution  for  use  in  the  following: 


122  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Stock  solution,  1  gallon. 
Water,  16  gallons. 
Milk  of  lime  whitewash,  3  gallons. 
Paris  green,  4  ounces. 

The  object  of  this  preparation  is  to  obtain  an  adhesive 
material  which  will  cause  the  poison  to  stick  to  smooth 
leaves.  It  may  also  be  used  with  bordeaux  mixture  in  the 
proportion  of  2  parts  of  the  stock  solution  to  48  parts  of 
the  bordeaux  mixture. 

Kerosene  Emulsion 

Hard  soap,  l/2  pound. 
Hot  water  (soft),  1  gallon. 
Kerosene,  2  gallons. 

Cut  the  soap  into  small  pieces  and  dissolve  it  in  the 
hot  water.  Add  the  kerosene  immediately  and  churn  it 
violently  at  the  same  time.  Pumping  the  mixture  back 
into  itself  for  five  or  ten  minutes  with  a  hand  force  pump 
or  syringe  is  an  excellent  method  of  mixing,  as  the  ma- 
terials must  be  mixed  until  they  form  a  thick  creamy  com- 
bination in  which  no  free  oil  shows  on  the  surface. 

This  is  a  concentrated  mixture  and  must  be  diluted 
before  using.  For  use  on  apple  and  pear  foliage,  one  gallon 
of  the  emulsion  should  be  diluted  with  nine  gallons  of 
water.  For  cherry,  peach  or  plum  foliage,  dilute  with 
twelve  gallons,  and  for  house  plants  dilute  with  fifteen 
gallons. 

Tobacco 

Tobacco  is  used  extensively  in  several  forms  for  the 
control  of  insect  troubles.  It  can  be  obtained  in  the 
market  in  several  forms,  either  as  a  liquid,  powder  or 
stems,  to  be  used  according  to  conditions.  The  fine  powder 
is  used  extensively  about  greenhouses  and  hotbeds  for 
green  aphis,  and  in  nurseries  and  orchards  for  woolly 
aphis.  It  is  scattered  over  the  infested  parts  undiluted. 


Lime-Sulphur  123 

The  essential  poison  of  tobacco  is  extracted  and  ap- 
pears on  the  market  in  several  forms,  as  "black  leaf," 
"nicofume,"  "tobacine,"  etc.,  and  are  used  either  as  fumi- 
gants  for  greenhouses  and  hotbeds  or  as  sprays  for  or- 
chard insects  such  as  woolly  aphis,  green  aphis  and  some 
other  sucking  insects. 

Miscible  or  Soluble  Oils 

Several  brands  of  soluble  oils  can  be  had  on  the  market. 
These  are  mostly  petroleum  products,  so  treated  that  they 
mix  quite  freely  with  water,  and  can  be  used  for  such  in- 
sects as  scale  and  aphis.  These  materials  are  efficient  and 
useful,  but  must  be  used  with  caution,  as  when  too  strong 
they  may  cause  serious  injury  to  the  plants.  They  should 
be  used  at  strengths  of  not  less  than  one  part  of  oil  to  fif- 
teen parts  of  water. 

Lime-Sulphur 

Stone  lime,  15  pounds. 

Sulphur,  flour  or  flowers,  15  pounds. 

Water,  50  gallons. 

Slake  the  lime  with  some  water  in  a  large  iron  kettle. 
As  it  is  slaking  add  the  sulphur  gradually  and  mix  it  with 
the  slaking  lime.  Add  ten  or  fifteen  gallons  of  water  to 
the  mass  and  boil  for  about  one  hour,  -or  until  the  mixture 
becomes  an  orange  red  or  greenish  color.  Then  add  the 
remainder  of  the  water  to  bring  it  up  to  a  volume  of  50 
gallons,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Instead  of  boiling  this  mixture  over  a  fire,  it  may  be 
cooked  by  turning  a  jet  of  live  steam  from  an  engine  boiler 
into  the  liquid,  proceeding  in  the  same  manner  as  when 
the  cooking  is  done  in  a  kettle,  except  that  the  cooking 
with  steam  can  be  done  in  a  barrel  or  wooden  tank. 

This  mixture  should  be  used  only  on  dormant  trees,  as 
it  is  liable  to  cause  serious  scalding  if  used  at  this  strength 
on  foliage. 

This  material  is  put  up  commercially  in  concentrated 
form  by  a  number  of  firms,  directions  for  the  use  of  which 


124  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

vary  with  the  brand,  and  they  need  to  be  used  according 
to  the  directions  which  accompany  each  brand.  Where 
small  quantities  are  needed  there  is  a  distinct  advantage 
in  using  the  commercial  brands,  but  where  large  quantities 
are  needed,  and  especially  if  a  steam  boiler  is  available,  the 
home  mixture  may  be  the  cheapest. 

Carbon  Bisulphide 

This  is  a  heavy,  volatile  liquid  used  largely  for  the  de- 
struction of  insects  in  stored  grain.  The  fumes  are  very 
inflammable  and  caution  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  liquid 
away  from  a  flame,  or  even  a  lighted  pipe.  It  has  a  very 
unpleasant  odor  and  comes  in  large  tin  cans  holding  va- 
rious quantities  as  desired.  It  needs  to  be  used  at  the  rate 
of  1  pound  to  every  1,000  cubic  feet  of  space.  The  fumes 
of  this  liquid  are  heavier  than  air,  so  the  liquid  should  be 
placed  in  shallow  pans  on  the  top  of  the  bin  of  grain,  and 
the  bin  should  be  as  tight  as  possible.  It  is  best  to  cover 
the  bin  with  a  canvas  to  keep  the  fumes  in,  and  should  not 
be  uncovered  or  air  admitted  for  24  hours. 


Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas 

Sulphuric  acid,  commercial,  1.83  sp.  gr.,  2  fluid  ozs. 
Potassium  eyanide,  98  to  100  per  cent,  1  ounce. 
Water,  4  ounces. 

Pour  the  water  into  an  earthen  dish  and  add  to  it  the 
sulphuric  acid.  Do  not  pour  the  water  into  the  acid,  as  it 
will'  spatter  and  burn  the  hands  or  clothing.  Weigh  out 
the  cyanide  and  put  it  into  a  paper  sack,  being  careful  to 
not  inhale  any  of  the  fumes  that  come  from  it,  as  they  are 
highly  poisonous.  Place  the  vessel  in  the  position  desired, 
then  drop  in  the  paper  sack  of  cyanide  and  leave  the  room 
immediately.  The  gas  is  liberated  very  quickly  and  is 
deadly  poisonous. 

For  nursery  stock  in  the  dormant  condition  use  the 
above  quantity  for  every  100  cubic  feet  of  space.  The  house 
or  fumigating  box  should  be  as  tight  as  possible,  and  the 


Tanglefoot  125 

fumes  need  to  be  confined  for  one  hour,  after  which  it 
should  be  thoroughly  ventilated.  If  the  fumes  are  con- 
fined in  a  tight  room,  means  for  opening  the  ventilators 
should  be  provided  from  the  outside,  and  one  should  not 
attempt  to  enter  until  after  the  place  has  been  well  venti- 
lated. 

In  fumigating  the  greenhouse  the  above  quantities  are 
sufficient  for  1,000  cubic  feet  of  space  where  plants  are 
growing.  Greenhouse  plants  vary  greatly  in  their  ability 
to  withstand  the  effects  of  hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  and  plants 
such  as  tomatoes,  roses  and  ferns  are  easily  injured.  In 
the  greenhouse  the  fumigation  should  be  done  at  night 
when  there  is  no  wind,  and  the  house  should  be  as  dry 
as  possible,  and  at  60  degrees  temperature. 

Pyrethrum 

This  is  a  very  fine,  light  brown  powder  made  from  the 
flower  heads  of  a  certain  species  of  Pyrethrum.  It  is  prac- 
tically harmless  to  man,  but  the  fumes  which  it  liberates 
on  exposure  to  air  are  suffocating  to  insects.  It  appears 
on  the  market  in  three  commercial  forms: 

Persian  insect  powder,  made  from  the  heads  of  pyreth- 
rum  roseum,  a  plant  native  to  the  Caucasus  region  and 
found  under  cultivation  in  America.  Dalmatian  insect 
powder,  and  Buhach,  made  from  Pyrethrum  cinerariae- 
folium.  This  is  grown  in  California  for  this  special  pur- 
pose. 

Any  of  these  insect  powders,  when  fresh  and  pure,  are 
effective  for  their  purpose,  but  they  quickly  lose  their  ef- 
fectiveness on  exposure  to  air.  These  powders  are  usually 
used  by  being  sprinkled  around  over  the  insects,  or  in 
places  frequented  by  insects, -such  as  house  flies  and  mos- 
quitoes. They  may  be  mixed  with  water  and  sprinkled 
over  the  plants. 

Tanglefoot 

This  is  the  material  from  which  sticky  fly  paper  is 
made,  and  is  useful  for  painting  a  ring  around  the  base  of 


126  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

tree  trunks  to  keep  insects  from  crawling  up  from  the 
soil.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  woolly  aphis.  These 
insects  when  born  are  inclined  to  travel,  and  since  the  first 
brood  in  spring  come  from  the  old  ones  which  have  hiber- 
nated on  the  roots,  they  climb  the  trees  and  live  on  the 
branches  during  the  summer.  They  can  be  prevented  by 
tying  a  ring  of  paper,  underlaid  with  cotton,  around  the 
trunk  and  applying  the  tanglefoot  to  the  paper.  If  applied 
directly  to  the  bark  it  may  cause  injury. 

Paris   Green 

This  insecticide  has  been  used  for  a  greater  number 
of  years  than  any  other  now  in  use,  and  when  perfectly 
pure  it  is  very  reliable,  but  as  it  is  a  rather  coarse  crysta- 
line  material,  it  settles  rapidly  to  the  bottom  of  the  spray 
tank  unless  the  contents  are  kept  t-horqughly  stirred.  It 
is  applied  in  connection  with  quick  lime,  the  lime  being 
added  to  prevent  the  Paris  green  from  burning  the  foliage. 

It  is  prepared  for  use  as  follows: 

Paris  green,  1  pound. 
Quick  lime,  4  to  5  pounds. 
Water,  160-200  gallons. 

Mix  the  Paris  green  with  a  little  water  and  stir  it  to  a 
thin  paste;  meanwhile  slake  the  lime  to  a  thin  paste  and 
then  add  the  paste  of  Paris  green  and  mix  the  two  thor- 
oughly, after  which  strain  the  mixture  through  a  fine  seive 
into  the  spray  tank  containing  the  requisite  amount  of 
water.  If  it  is  desired  to  use  the  poison  in  connection  with 
a  fungicide,  bordeaux  mixture  can  take  the  place  of  the 
water  in  diluting  the  above  mixture.  In  applying  this  mix- 
ture to  the  trees  or  plants  it  is  necessary  to  keep  it  well 
stirred  all  of  the  time,  as  the  Paris  green  will  settle  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  thereby  giving  irregular  distribution. 

Arsenate  of  Lead 

Arsenate  of  lead  is  now  the  leading  insecticide,  having 
taken  the  place  of  Paris  green  for  all  orchard  purposes. 


Poisoned   Baits  127 

There  are  many  brands  of  this  article  upon  the  market  and 
all  are  fairly  pure  and  equally  effective  in  controlling  insect 
pests.  The  ready  made  arsenate  of  lead  is  all  ready  to  use 
by  diluting  one  to  three  pounds  of  the  paste  with  fifty  gal- 
lons of  water. 

As  the  commercial  brands  of  arsenate  of  lead  come  in 
cans  or  kegs  and  in  the  form  of  a  stiff  white  paste  quite 
like  white  lead  paint,  it  is  made  more  difficult  to  handle 
by  the  paste  drying  out.  For  this  reason  many  persons 
who  have  only  a  small  amount  of  spraying  to  do  prefer  to 
make  up  their  own  arsenate,  as  it  is  easily  made  and  is 
slightly  cheaper  than  the  commercial  brands.  Arsenate  of 
lead  can  be  made  by  the  following  formula: 

Arsenate  of  soda,  4  ounces. 
Acetate  of  lead,  11  ounces. 
Water,  15-20  gallons. 

Dissolve  the  arsenate  of  soda  in  two  quarts  of  water 
and  the  acetate  of  lead  in  four  quarts  of  water  in  wooden 
vessels.  When  dissolved  pour  them  into  the  required 
amount  of  water.  A  milk  white  material  will  result,  and 
it  is  ready  to  use.  This  material  can  be  used  at  a  greater 
strength  without  injuring  the  foliage  of  plants  than  can 
any  of  the  other  spray  poisons.  It  can  be  added  to  bor- 
deaux mixture  or  to  lime-sulphur  in  the  same  proportion 
as  when  water  is  used. 

Poisoned  Baits 

Sow-bugs,  grasshoppers,  cut  worms  and  some  other  in- 
sects can  be  destroyed  by  poisoned  baits.  There  are  va- 
rious forms  of  this  method  of  destroying  insects.  Grass 
leaves  dipped  in  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  is  often 
an  effective  means  of  getting  rid  of  cut  worms.  As  a 
means  of  destroying  grasshoppers  a  bran-arsenic  mash  is 
very  successful  and  is  made  as  follows: 

White  arsenic,  1  pound. 
Brown  sugar,  1  to  2  pounds. 
Bran,  6  pounds. 


128  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Mix  these  materials  together  and  then  add  enough 
water  to  make  a  thick  mash  and  then  scatter  around  the 
plants  that  are  attacked,  placing  a  spoonful  in  a  place. 

For  cut  worms  in  onion  fields  a  dry  bait  has  been  found 
very  effective  when  made  as  follows: 

Paris  green,  1  pound. 
Middlings,  15  pounds. 
Bran,  15  pounds. 

Mix  these  materials  thoroughly  and  scatter  broadcast 
about  the  borders  of  the  garden  or  the  plants  that  are  at- 
tacked. It  may  be  easily  scattered  along  the  rows  by  the 
use  of  the  seed  drill. 

Hellebore 

Powdered  fresh  hellebore  is  of  value  in  destroying  in- 
sects on  small  fruits  which  are  nearly  ready  to  market  and 
on  which  it  is  undesirable  to  use  arsenical  poisons.  It  must 
be  used  while  fresh,  as  it  loses  its  poisonous  properties 
when  exposed  to  the  air,  and  it  can  be  dusted  over  the 
plants  or  applied  as  a  spray  made  thus: 

Hellebore,  1  ounce. 
Water,  2  gallons. 

Resin  Wash 

Resin  wash  is  used  in  California  for  several  of  the  scales 
which  infest  the  citrus  fruits.  It  can  be  used  as  a  summer 
spray  for  San  Jose  scale,  but  is  not  as  effective  as  winter 
applications  of  lime-sulphur.  It  is  made  as  follows: 

Resin,  20  pounds. 
Concentrated  lye,  4  pounds. 
Fish  oil,  2^-2   pounds. 
Water,  100  gallons. 

Place  the  lye,  resin  and  oil  in  a  kettle  and  cover  well 
with  water  and  boil  for  about  two  hours,  adding  water  as 
needed.  Boil  for  about  two  hours  or  until  the  compound 
resembles  strong  black  coffee.  Dilute  to  one-third  of  the 


Fungicides  129 

final  bulk  with  hot  water,  or  with  cold  water  added  slowly 
over  the  fire,  thus  making  a  stock  mixture.  Dilute  to  100 
gallons  when  ready  for  use. 

Fungicides 

Fungi  constitute  a  group  of  plants  of  a  very  low  order 
in 'which  the  green  coloring  matter  common  in  all  culti- 
vated plants  is  not  developed.  For  this  reason  these  plants 
are  unable  to  digest  for  themselves  the  crude  food  ma- 
terials available  in  the  soil  and  air,  and  must  get  their  food 
from  the  bodies  of  other  plants  which  may  be  either  dead 
or  living.  When  these  fungi  are  found  on  dead  and  de- 
caying plants,  such  as  rotting  wood,  they  are  called  sapro- 
phites,  but  where  they  are  found  on  the  bodies  of  living 
plants,  either  on  the  root,  leaves  or  fruits,  they  are  called 
parasites.  On  account  of  this  tendency  for  some  of  them 
to  live  on  living  green  plants,  they  cause  serious  trouble 
oftentimes,  known  as  "fungous  diseases."  Without  proper 
protection  the  host  plant  is  often  entirely  destroyed,  or  is 
unable  to  mature  a  satisfactory  crop  of  fruit  or  seed. 

The  most  common  fungous  diseases  are  known  as  mil- 
dews, leaf  spots,  cankers,  fruit  rots,  scabs,  rusts,  etc.,  and 
since  the  most  of  these  fungi  live  within  the  host,  it  is 
impossible  to  reach  them  after  the  host  has  become  in- 
fected. For  this  reason  preventive  measures  must  be  un- 
dertaken to  keep  the  plants  in  a  sanitary  condition  and 
reduce. the  possibility  of  their  becoming  infected  with  the 
fungus  parasite.  This  can  be  done  by  spraying  the  plant 
with  some  fungicide  which  will  prevent  the  fungus  from 
gaining  entrance  either  by  killing  the  spores  or  preventing 
their  germination. 

For  the  most  effective  and  positive  results  to  be  ob- 
tained from  thorough  spraying,  it  is  best  to  keep  the  plan- 
tation in  as  clean  and  sanitary  a  condition  as  possible, 
through  the  removal  of  rubbish  which  may  serve  as  the 
hiding  place  ever  winter  of  numerous  insects,  and  fungus 
spores;  to  keep  the  ground  cleared  of  objectionable  weeds 
and  grass;  to  keep  dead  limbs  out  of  the  trees,  and  dis- 

(5) 


130  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

cased  leaves  and  fruit  disposed  of  either  by  gathering  and 
burning  or  turning  them  under  by  plowing  and  cultivating. 

Bordeaux  Mixture 

Copper  sulphate  (blue-stone  or  blue  vitriol),  4  pounds. 
Fresh  lump  lime,  4  pounds. 
Water,  50  gallons. 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  and  slake  the  lime  in  a 
part  of  the  water.  When  the  lime  has  all  slaked  to  a  fine 
powder  and  the  copper  sulphate  thoroughly  dissolved, 
dilute  each  of  them  with  half  of  the  remaining  volume  of 
water,  then  pour  them  together,  stirring  constantly.  A 
more  convenient  method  is  to  dilute  the  materials  in  suit- 
able tanks  and  run  them  together  and  at  the  same  time 
into  the  spray  tank. 

Stock  solutions  of  either  copper  sulphate  or  lime  may 
be  made  up  in  the  proportions  of  one  pound  of  each  to  a 
gallon  of  water.  To  make  up  the  spraying  mixtures,  four 
gallons  of  each  can  be  measured  out,  diluted  and  mixed  as 
before.  The  solutions  of  copper  sulphate  and  lime  should 
never  be  brought  together  in  strong  solutions  as  they  do 
not  make  a  satisfactory  spraying  material  when  thus 
treated. 

Soda  Bordeaux  Mixture 

Copper  sulphate,  4  pounds. 

Caustic  soda  (soda  lye),  1  to  V/2  pounds. 

Water,  50  gallons. 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  in  water  as  for  the  regular 
bordeaux  mixture,  and  then  add  just  'enough  of  the  soda 
lye  dissolved  in  water  to  neutralize  the  mixture.  There 
should  be  no  more  nor  less  of  the  soda  lye  used  than  is 
necessao'  to  neutralize  the  mixture,  and  one  will  need  a 
strip  of  blue  and  red  litmus  paper  to  do  the  testing.  When 
neutral  neither  of  the  papers  will  change  color,  while  if 
the  mixture  is  acid  the  blue  paper  will  turn  red,  and  if  too 
much  of  the  soda  has  been  used,  the  red  paper  will  turn 


Sulphur  ,    131 

blue.  Some  persons  prefer  to  add  about  a  pound  of  the 
soda  and  then  neutralize  with  lime  water,  as  there  is  not 
so  much  danger  of  getting  it  too  strongly  alkaline  and 
burning  the  fruit. 

This  spraying  material  is  not  so  easily  made  up  as  bor- 
deaux mixture,  but  it  has  the  added  advantage  of  not  soil- 
ing maturing  fruits  and  ornamental  plants.  When  care- 
fully made  good  results  can  be  expected,  but  on  account  of 
its  scalding  the  plants  unless  carefully  neutralized,  it  is 
not  generally  recommended. 

Ammoniacal  Copper  Carbonate 

Copper  carbonate,  5  ounces. 
Ammonia,  26  degrees  Baume,  3  pints. 
Water,  50  gallons. 

Dilute  the  ammonia  with  five  or  six  quarts  of  water 
and  make  a  paste  of  the  copper  carbonate  in  water.  Pour 
the  ammonia  over  the  paste,  using  just  enough  to  dissolve 
it  Do  not  apply  more  than  is  necessary.  If  any  copper 
carbonate  remains  undissolved  after  standing  in  the  am- 
monia for  some  few  minutes,  add  a  little  more  ammonia. 
Then  dilute  to  fifty  gallons. 

This  makes  a  deep  blue  solution  that  is  not  as  effective 
a  fungicide  as  either  bordeaux  mixture  or  the  soda  bor- 
deaux, but  it  has  the  advantage  of  containing  no  sediment 
and  can  be  used  on  ripening  fruits  and  ornamental  plants. 
It  deteriorates  after  standing  exposed  to  the  air  for  some 
time. 

Potassium  Sulphide 

Potassim  sulphide,  3  ounces. 
Water,  10  gallons. 

This  material  should  be  dissolved  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 
Chiefly  used  for  the  control  of  powdery  mildew  on  goose- 
berries. 

Sulphur 

Dry  sulphur  is  used  in  a  small  way  for  the  prevention 
of  some  of  the  mildews  which  attack  plants  in  the  field, 


132  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

and  can  be  mixed  dry  and  sprinkled  along  the  drills  with 
onion  seed  for  the  prevention  of  onion  smut.  In  green- 
house it  is  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  lime  and  painted  on 
the  heating  pipes,  where  it  is  slowly  evaporated  for  the 
control  of  rose  mildew. 


Formalin 

Formalin  (40%),  1  pint. 
Water,  30  to  50  gallons. 

For  the  treatment  of  potato  scab  the  seed  potatoes  are 
soaked  for  half  an  hour  in  the  stronger  solution.  For  oat 
and  wheat  smut  the  weaker  solution  should  be  used  at  the 
rate  of  about  one  gallon  to  each  bushel  of  seed.  The  grain 
for  treatment  should  be  poured  out  on  a  tight  floor  and 
sprinkled  with  the  solution.  It  should  then  be  shoveled 
over  into  a  pile  and  thoroughly  mixed  up  so  that  each 
grain  is  coated  with  the  solution.-  Then  cover  it  with  a 
canvas  and  allow  to  stand  for  a  couple  of  hours  before 
spreading  out  to  dry. 

Self-Boiled  Lime-Sulphur 

This  spray  mixture  is  one  of  the  newest  fungicides,  and 
has  proven  especially  effective  in  the  control  of  peach  scab 
and  brown  rot.  Prof.  W.  M.  Scott  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  prepares  this  mixture  as  fol- 
lows: 

Fresh  stone  lime,  8  pounds. 

Sulphur  (either  flowers  or  flour),  8  pounds. 

Water,  50  gallons. 

"In  mild  cases  of  peach  scab  and  brown  rot  a  weaker 
mixture,  containing  6  pounds  of  each  ingredient  to  50  gal- 
lons of  water,  may  be  used  with  satisfactory  results.  The 
mixture  can  best  be  prepared  in  rather  large  quantities- 
say,  enough  for  200  gallons  at  a  time,  making  the  formula 
32  pounds  of  lime  and  32  pounds  of  sulphur,  to  be  cooked 
with  a  small  quantity  of  water  (8  or  10  gallons)  and  then 
diluted  to  200  gallons. 


Self-Boiled    Lime-Sulphur  133 

"The  lime  should  be  placed  in  a  barrel  and  enough 
water  poured  on  to  almost  cover  it.  As  soon  as  the  lime 
begins  to  slake  the  sulphur  should  be  added  after  first 
running  it  through  a  sieve  to  break  up  the  lumps.  The 
mixture  should  be  constantly  stirred  and  more  water  added 
as  needed  to  form  a  thick  paste  at  first  and  then  gradually 
a  thin  paste.  The  lime  will  supply  enough  heat  to  boil  the 
mixture  several  minutes.  As  soon  as  it  is  well  slaked, 
water  should  be  added  to  cool  the  mixture  and  prevent 
further  cooking.  It  is  then  ready  to  be  strained  into  the 
spray  tank,  diluted  and  applied. 

"The  stage  at  which  the  cold  water  should  be  poured  in« 
varies  with  different  limes.  Some  limes  are  so  sluggish 
in  slaking  that  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  enough  heat  from 
them  to  cook  the  mixture  at  all,  while  other  limes  become 
intensely  hot  on  slaking  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
allow  the  boiling  to  proceed  too  far.  If  the  mixture  is 
allowed  to  remain  hot  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  after  the 
slaking  is  completed,  the  sulphur  gradually  goes  into  solu- 
tion, combining  with  the  lime  to  form  sulphids,  which  are 
injurious  to  peach  foliage.  It  is  therefore  very  important, 
especially  with  hot  limes,  to  cool  the  mixture  quickly  by 
adding  a  few  buckets  of  water  as  soon  as  the  lumps  of 
lime  have  slaked  down.  The  intense  heat,  violent  boiling 
and  constant  stirring  result  in  a  uniform  mixture  of  finely 
divided  sulphur  and  lime,  with  only  a  very  small  percentage 
of  the  sulphur  in  solution.  The  mixture  should  be  strained 
to  take  out  the  coarse  particles  of  lime,  but  the  sulphur 
should  be  carefully  worked  through  the  strainer." 


134  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


CHAPTER  VI 


Orchard  Pests  and  Diseases 

Green  Aphis  of  the  Apple 

This  is  one  of  the  common  green  Hce  that  curls  the 
leaves  of  the  apple  tree.  It  is  an  extremely  common  and 
troublesome  insect  in  some  parts  of  the  country  and  is 
essentially  one  which  feeds  on  the  leaves  by  sucking  the 
juice.  The  female  lays  eggs  on  the  twigs  of  the  new  shoots 
in  the  fall,  and  these  hatch  just  at  the  time  the  buds  are 
beginning  to  open  in  the  spring,  and  are  ready  to  insert 
their  beaks  into  the  tissues  of  the  unfolding  leaves.  These 
insects  that  hatch  in  the  spring  are  all  females,  and  in 
about  two  or  three  weeks  they  begin  giving  birth  to  living 
young,  and  the  numbers  then  increase  very  rapidly.  Early 
in  the  summer  a  generation  of  winged  individuals  appears, 
and  fly  from  tree  to  tree  and  from  orchard  to  orchard  with 
the  prevailing  winds.  In  the  latter  part  of  summer  a  gen- 
eration of  winged  males  and  wingless,  egg-laying  females 
appears  and  a  little  later  the  females  begin  laying  the 
greenish  black  eggs  which  are  to  carry  through  the  winter. 

Remedy:  It  is  quite  difficult  to  kill  the  eggs  of  this  in- 
sect. Strong  applications  of  lime-sulphur  have  been  help- 
ful, but  the  best  methods  are  with  tobacco  sprays,  such 
as  "black  leaf"  or  "black  leaf  40"  at  about  the  time  the  eggs 
have  hatched  and  the  insects  are  working  themselves  into 
the  opening  buds.  Kerosene  emulsion  is  also  effective. 

Woolly  Aphis. 

In  many  places  this  insect  is  more  troublesome  than 
the  green  aphis.  It  is  readily  recognized  by  its  reddish 


Woolly  Aphis 


135 


purple  color  and  the  white,  woolly  secretions  which  ap- 
pear on  the  upper  surface  of  its  body,  and  from  which 
it  derives  its  name.  It  lives  on  the  roots  and  on  the  tops 
of  apple  trees,  usually  on  the  smaller  roots,  and  in  the 
forks,  and  on  the  smaller  branches  of  the  tops.  In  winter 
it  may  entirely  disappear  from  sight  on  the  infested  por- 
tions of  the  tree  above  the  ground,  but  on  the  roots  it  does 
not  perish,  although  its  reproduction  takes  place  more 


Woolly  aphis  of  the  apple.  A,  winged  female;  b,  wing- 
less female,  and  c,  a  wingless  female  bearing  the  peculiar 
"woolly"  secretion  characteristic  of  this  insect. 

slowly.  A  winged  brood  appears  late  in  the  fall,  but  it  has 
not  been  determined  with  certainty  whether  the  females  of 
this  brood  lay  their  eggs  on  the  branches  or  on  the  soil. 
The  infestation  in  the  spring  comes  from  the  fact  that  the 
newly  born  young  travel  up  the  trunk  to  where  they  find 
suitable  place  for  lodgment.  They  cause  large  smooth 
knots  to  form  on  both  the  root  and  branches  wherever 
a  colony  of  them  may  form,  and  in  cases  of  severe  infes- 
tation may  so  seriously  injure  the  roots  as  to  cause  them 
to  rot  off. 


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The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


When  once  established  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
rid  an  orchard  of  this  pest,  and  the  best  means  is  to  guard 
against  its  getting  a  start  in  the  orchard.  One  method  is 
to  have  the  apple  trees  worked  on  Northern  Spy  roots,  as 
this  variety  seems  to  be  quite  immune  from  serious  attacks. 
Nursery  stock  that  has  been  puddled  should  have  all  of 
the  mud  washed  off  the  roots  and  then  be  thoroughly  ex- 
amined for  signs  of  infestation.  Fumigation  with  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas  will  eliminate  the  insects  which  may  be 


m 


i 


Characteristic  galls  produced  on  tree  roots  by  the  woolly 
aphis. 

present.  Where  present  on  the  tops  of  trees,  they  can  be 
disposed  of  with  kerosene  emulsion  or  black  leaf  sprays 
applied  with  sufficient  force  to  wash  off  or  penetrate  the 
woolly  covering.  Black  leaf  is  considered  the  most  ef- 
fective when  used  in  the  proportion  of  one  gallon  to  65 
or  70.  When  trees  are  sprayed  with  lime-sulphur  for  the 
eggs  of  green  aphis,  the  woolly  aphis  is  kept  in  check.  A 
band  of  sticky  fly-paper  or  "Tanglefoot"  wrapped  around 
the  base  of  the  trees  will  prevent  the  migrating  young 
from  ascending  the  tree  from  the  roots. 


Brown   Mite  137 

Bark  Louse. 

This  is  a  minute  insect  which  is  more  active  in  the 
spring,  feeding  on  the  tender  shoots.  Later  in  the  season 
it  secretes  a  scale  under  which  it  lives.  It  can  be  controll- 
ed with  -sprays  of  kerosene  emulsion  or  lime-sulphur  ap- 
plied while  the  trees  are  dormant. 

Bud  Moth. 

This  is  a  small  insect,  the  larvae  of  which  destroy  the 
flower  buds  of  apples,  pears,  plums,  etc.  It  can  be  con- 
trolled with  arsenical  sprays  applied  when  the  buds  are  be- 
ginning to  open  and  again  ten  days  later. 

Apple  Magot  or  Railroad  Worm 

Troublesome  in  some  places  where  it  spoils  or  destroys 
apples  by  tunneling  through  the  apples,  causing  the  fruit 
to  fall.  Destruction  of  the  infested  fruit,  together  with 
keeping  the  orchard  in  thoroughly  sanitary  condition  are 
the  best  means  of  eliminating  this  pest. 

Brown  Mite 

In  some  sections  of  the  West  this  insect  has  caused 
considerable  trouble  to  the  foliage  of  all  kinds  of  fruit 
trees,  causing  the  trees  to  take  on  the  appearance  of  being 
in  neecl  of  water.  The  mites  feed  on  the  leaves,  but  de- 
posit their  eggs  on  the  branches  and  limbs.  When  very 
abundant  they  give  a  reddish  color  to  the  bark,  quite  no- 
ticeable in  the  winter.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  late  sum- 
mer and  do  not  hatch  until  after  growth  has  begun  in  the 
spring.  Weldon  of  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station  re- 
ports that  this  insect  can  be  most  effectively  controlled 
with  sulphur  used  in  water  as  a  spray.  Flowers  of  sulphur, 
one  pound  to  three  gallons  of  water  and  enough  soap  so 
that  the  sulphur  will  mix  freely  with  the  water,  is  perfectly 
effective  as  a  summer  spray.  Tobacco  preparations  will  kill 
the  mites,  but  not  the  eggs,  and  are  effective  only  when 
repeated  applications  are  made.  Oil  sprays  seem  to  pene- 


138  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

trate  the  eggs  and  destroy  them  better  than  the  tobacco 
extracts,  but  are  unsafe  to  use  with  water  strongly  im- 
pregnated with  alkali. 

Brown  Tail  Moth 

This  insect  is  found  at  the  present  time  only  in  the 
region  of  the  New  England  states,  but  at  the  rate  it  is 
spreading  it  may  easily  occupy  the  entire  country  in  a 
short  length  of  time.  The  adults,  moths,  of  this  insect 
expand  1%  to  1^4  inches  and  are  white  except  on  the  abdo- 
men, which  is  brownish  and  tipped  with  a  tuft  of  brown 
hairs.  This  tuft  is  small  and  dark  in  the  male,  but  in  the 
female  is  large  and  of  a  golden  brown  color,  and  on  ac- 
count of  its  prominence  has  won  for  the  insect  its  name. 
They  may  be  found  on  the  wing  in  July.  Both  sexes  are 
strong  flyers  and  are  attracted  by  artificial  lights. 

Eggs  are  laid  in  August  on  the  leaves  at  the  end  of  a 
shoot,  and  are  covered  with  a  few  hairs  from  the  body  of 
the  female.  The  young  larvae  appear  in  the  course  of  a 
few  days  and  feed  on  the  leaves,  spinning  a  web  as  they 
feed.  In  the  winter  this  web  is  thickened  and  the  colony 
passes  the  winter  in  the  nest.  These  nests  are  very  con- 
spicuous, as  they  are  so  very  different  from  any  other  win- 
tering places  for  a  colony  of  insects.  Early  in  the  spring 
they  emerge  from  the  nest  and  feed  on  the  young  leaves 
of  the  trees,  and  when  the  insects  are  numerous  they  will 
completely  strip  the  foliage  in  a  short  time.  When  full 
grown  they  are  about  \l/2  inches  long,  of  a  dark  brown 
color  with  a  sprinkling  of  orange,  with  the  body  covered 
with  long  fine  reddish  brown  hairs  and  a  row  of  conspicu- 
ous white  hairs  along  each  side  of  the  body.  There  is  a 
conspicuous  red  tubercle  on  the  top  of  the  sixth  and  sev- 
enth abdominal  segments. 

The  unpleasant  and  dangerous  character  of  these  in- 
sects lays  not  alone  in  the  harm  they  do  to  trees  by  eating 
the  foliage,  but  also  to  the  discomfort  they  cause  to  man 
when  coming  in  contact  with  the  hairs  which  cover  the 
bodies  of  these  caterpillars.  These  hairs  are  brittle,  very 


Codling  Moth  139 

sharp  pointed  and  barbed,  so  that  they  enter  the  skin  easily 
where  they  set  up  a  painful  irritation. 

On  account  of  its  leaf  eating  habit  it  can  be  controlled 
with  any  of  the  arsenical  sprays  which  are  applied  as  soon 
after  the  leaves  open  in  spring  as  possible.  As  many  of 
the  over-winter  nests  as  can  be  collected  should  be  burned. 
Clearing  out  thickets  of  plants  that  are  infested  and  put- 
ting old,  neglected  orchards  in  sanitary  condition  will  keep 
the  pest  in  control. 

Canker  Worm 

These  worms  appear  early  in  the  summer  in  great  num- 
bers and  are  quite  commonly  known  as  "loopers"  or 
"measuring  worms."  They  are  voracious  feeders,  and  will 
quickly  strip  the  foliage  from  the  infested  trees.  The 
female  moths  are  wingless  and  late  in  the  fall  they  climb 
up  on  the  trunks  and  branches  of  the  trees  where  the  eggs 
arc*  deposited.  Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  as  soon  as  the 
insects  appear,  and  repeat  if  necessary. 

Cigar  Case  Bearer 

The  caterpillars  of  this  moth  infest  the  leaves  and  in 
the  spring  may  be  on  the  buds  and  young  fruits.  The 
mature  caterpillars  are  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long  and 
a  reddish  orange  color.  They  build  around  themselves  a 
cigar  shaped  case  from,  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf  fast- 
ened together  with  silk.  These  cases  are  started  in  the 
fall  and  are  increased  considerably  in  the  spring  as  the 
insect  develops  into  maturity.  The  adults  emerge  in  mid- 
summer as  a  steel  grey  moth  about  one-half  inch  across 
the  wings.  It  can  be  kept  in  check  by  applications  of  ar- 
senical sprays,  although  on  badly  infested  trees  two  or 
three  applications  may  be  needed  at  intervals  of  three  days 
to  a  week  apart. 

Codling  Moth 

This  insect  causes  a  greater  annual  loss  to  fruit  grow- 
ers than  any  other  single  insect  except  San  Jose  scale  and 


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The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


plum  curculio.  It  does  this  because  it  is  the  insect  which 
causes  the  worm  in  the  apple.  It  can  be  very  effectively 
controlled  by  spraying  with  lead  arsenate  or  Paris  green. 
During  the  past  half  dozen  years  this  insect  has  received 
a  great  amount  of  attention  from  orchardists  and  ento- 
mologists and  very  effecient  means  for  its  control  have 
been  perfected.  There  are  two  broods  of  this  worm  in 
each  season,  and  the  eggs  of  the  first  brood  are  laid  on  the 
leaves  or  young  fruit  and  the  worm  enters  the  apple 
through  the  calyx.  Where  this  brood  of  worms  can  be 


Codling  moth:  A,  portion  of  an  apple  showing  tunnels 
made  by  the  worm;  b,  calyx  at  which  the  worm  entered;  d, 
pupa;  e,  larva  or  worm;  f  and  g,  adults. 


controlled  there  will  be  but  little  trouble  from  the  second 
brood.  On  account  of  this  habit  of  entering  at  the  calyx 
it  is  apparent  that  the  calyx  should  be  filled  with  the 
poison.  The  second  brood  appears  about  mid-summer  and 
enters  the  apple  through  the  side.  It  usually  selects  a 
place  where  two  apples  touch  or  where  a  leaf  covers  the 
side  of  a  fruit. 


Curculio  141 

In  the  Western  sections  an  attempt  has  been  made, 
and  with  more  or  less  success,  to  do  this  first  spraying  so 
effectually  as  to  make  subsequent  spraying  unnecessary. 
It  must  be  done  at  a  pressure  of  150  to  200  pounds,  with 
a  coarse  nozzle,  the  bordeaux  type  being  preferred,  and  the 
spray  applied  just  at  the  time  the  last  petals  are  falling 
from  the  flowers.  Better  results  can  be  had  by  making 
two  other  sprays  at  intervals  of  a  month  apart.  The  doors 
and  windows  of  cellars  or  houses  in  which  apples  are 
stored  over  winter  should  be  screened  so  as  to  keep  the 
moths  which  may  hatch  out  from  the  infested  fruit  from 
reaching  the  orchard. 

Clean  cultivation  and  the  removal  of  scales  of  bark  on 
the  trunks  and  large  limbs  of  the  trees  will  prevent  the 
worms  from  finding  suitable  places  in  which  to  pupate. 

Curculio 

There  are  three  species  of  this  insect  which  may  do 
serious  damage  to  the  apple.  These  are  the  plum  curculio, 
apple  curculio  and  apple  weevil.  Of  these  the  plum  cur- 
culio causes  the  greater  amount  of  damage.  This  insect 
is  a  beetle,  the  adult  of  which  is  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  long,  and  which  hibernates  over  winter  in  the  rub- 
bish, weeds,  under  clods  or  other  convenient  places  in  the 
orchard.  On  the  apple  this  insect  causes  serious  damage 
by  puncturing  the  developing  fruits  for  the  purpose  of 
feeding  and  to  deposit  eggs.  These  punctures  differ  some- 
what from  each  other  but  either  of  them  causes  a  dwarfing 
and  stunting  of  that  portion  of  the  fruit,  so  that  by  the 
time  the  fruit  reaches  maturity  it  is  very  much  misshapen. 

The  egg  puncture  made  by  this  beetle  is  quite  easily 
seen  on  fruits  that  have  been  stung.  The  female  makes  a 
little  pocket  in  the  flesh  of  the  apple,  and  into  this  she  de- 
posits one  egg.  Then,  beginning  at  the  puncture  thus 
made,  she  cuts  a  crescent  shaped  mark  through  the  skin 
partly  surrounding  the  puncture.  These  crescent  shaped 
marks  are  very  conspicuous  on  smooth  skinned  fruits  such 
;is  the  plum  and  apple,  and  in  regions  where  the  curculio 


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abounds  may  be  found  usually  in  great  abundance  in  the 
early  part  of  the  summer. 

These  eggs  hatch  in  from  three  to  seven  days  into  a 
small  grub  that  feeds  on  the  flesh  of  the  fruit.  For  some 
reason,  at  present  unexplained,  if  the  fruit  which  is  at- 
tacked continues  to  grow  and  enlarge  rapidly,  the  grub 
will'  work  its  way  toward  the  core,  but  usually  dies  be- 


Plum  curculio;  enlarged  in  the  upper  figure  and  natural 
size  in  the  lower. 


fore  the  larval  stage  is  completed.  If,  however,  the  fruit 
falls  to  the  ground,  then  the  larva  reaches  maturity. 
When  full  grown  they  come  out  of  the  fruit  and  enter  the 
ground,  where  they  form  a  little  cell  a  couple  of  inches 
beneath  the  surface  in  which  they  pupate.  Towards  the 
latter  part  of  the  summer,  sometimes  extending  over  quite 
a  long  period,  adults  emerge  from  their  pupal  cells  and 


Borers  143 

feed  on  the  leaves  and  maturing  fruits,  sometimes  making 
quite  large  holes  in  the  fruit  where  they  make  frequent 
visits  to  feed.  With  the  coming  of  cold  weather  these 
adults  hide  under  bits  of  rubbish  or  in  the  grass,  where 
they  find  protection  during  their  period  of  hibernation. 

This  insect  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  to  combat  of  the 
many  that  attack  fruit.  This  is  so  because  of  its  feeding 
habits  and  general  life  history.  One  means  which  is  quite 
often  advised  as  a  means  of  control  is  to  jar  the  infested 
trees.  The  insects  drop  from  the  trees  when  disturbed, 
and  may  be  caught  on  sheets  and  destroyed. 

Cultivation  during  mid-summer  is  a  method  of  dispos- 
ing of  large  numbers,  as  when  done  while  the  larvae  are  in 
the  pupal  stage  their  pupal  cells  will  be  destroyed  and  the 
larvae  killed  by  the  exposure  to  the  light  and  attacks  of 
predaceous  insects. 

Recent  experiments  have  shown  that  spraying  trees 
with  arsenate  of.  lead  is  a  very  effective  means  of  con- 
trolling this  insect.  The  methods  used  in  combatting  the 
codling  moth  are  such  as  to  keep  the  curculio  in  check, 
and  it  has  been  the  universal  experience  that  sprays  applied 
at  high  pressure  are  much  more  efficient  than  those  ap- 
plied as  a  mist  at  low  pressure.  Even  when  controlled  in 
the  most  efficient  manner  now  known  it  is  not  possible  to 
destroy  as  great  a  percentage  of  these  insects  as  it  is  of 
codling  moth. 

Apple  Curculio 

The  habits  of  this  insect  are  quite  similar  to  those  of 
the  plum  curculio,  and  means  of  controlling  the  latter  will 
prove  quite  as  effective. 

Borers 

Flat  headed  and  round  headed  borers  are  both  found 
in  the  trunks  of  apple  trees,  working  under  the  bark  and 
into  the  wood  of  the  trees,  usually  near  the  ground.  They 
cannot  be  controlled  by  spraying,  although  lime-sulphur 
solution  at  high  pressure  to  the  trunks  will  aid  in  reducing 


144 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


the  damage.  Various  washes  containing  soap  and  carbolic 
acid  have  been  advised  to  drive  or  keep  the  insects  from 
the  trees,  but  none  have  proved  to  be  of  much  value.  The 
best  and  safest  treatment  is  to  dig  the  borers  out  with  a 
sharp  knife,  or  to  run  a  wire  into  the  burrow  until  the  in- 
sects are  reached. 


Apple  curculio,  natural  size  in  the  small  figure. 

Fall  Web  Worm 

This  worm  is  the  larva  of  a  moth  of  pure  white  color* 
with  an  expanse  of  wings  of  about  one  and  one-fourth 
inches.  The  worms  attack  a  great  number  of  different 
kinds  of  plants,  usually  in  mid-summer.  The  full  grown 
larvae  are  about  an  inch  long,  with  varied  markings.  They 
are  thickly  covered  with  hairs  of  various  shades  of  yellow, 
being  longer  at  the  extremities  of  the  body,  and  a  dark 


Gypsy  Moth 


145 


stripe  extends  along  the  back.  They  spin  a  web  over  the 
foliage  and  confine  their  operations  inside  the  web.  As 
fast  as  all  of  the  enclosed  foliage  is  eaten  the  tent-like 
web  is  extended,  so  that  it  may  become  of  very  large  size 
if  the  insects  are  left  undisturbed. 

On  account  of  its  foliage  eating  habits  it  can  be  con- 
trolled by  any  of  the  arsenical  sprays  which  may  be  ap- 
plied. Usually  it  does  not  trouble  orchards  which  have 
been  thoroughly  sprayed  with  lead  arsenate,  as  this  spray 
sticks,  and  when  applied  for  the  codling  moth  the  foliage 
will  be  so  well  poisoned  that  the  web  worm  cannot  exist. 


Flat    headed    apple    tree    borer: 
A,  adult;  b,  pupa;  c  and  d,  larvae. 


Gypsy  Moth 

This  insect  at  the  present  time  is  confined  to  a  terri- 
tory quite  the  same  as  the  brown  tail  moth,  but  differs 
from  that  insect  in  that  it  passes  the  winter  in  the  egg 
stage.  The  female  does  not  fly,  although  provided  with 
wings.  She  crawls  into  any  convenient  hiding  place, 
whether  it  be  under  a  bit  of  rubbish,  under  a  stone,  old 
can,  fence  or  fence  rail,  building  or  what-not,  and  deposits 
her  eggs.  These  are  deposited  in  July  or  August  and  are 
covered  with  the  tan  colored  hairs  from  the  body  of  the 


146  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

female.  They  do  not  hatch  until  the  following  May.  The 
full  grown  larvae  are  dark  in  color  and  covered  with  dark 
hairs.  The  mature  larvae  have  two  rows  of  red  spots  and 
two  rows  of  blue  spots  along  the  back  with  a  yellowish 
but  dim  stripe  between  them.  They  usually  reach  their 
full  size  about  the  1st  of  July,  and  then  transform  to  pupae. 
These  pupae  are  found  in  locations  similar  to  the  egg 
masses,  but  occur  in  the  foliage  of  trees  and  shrubs  as 
well.  The  male  moth  is  brownish  yellow  in  color,  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  across  the  wings.  The  female  moth  is 
nearly  white,  with  a  body  so  heavy  as  to  prevent  flight. 

The  most  effective  means  of  controlling  this  insect  is 
to  destroy  the  egg  masses.  There  is  an  abundance  of  time 
for  this  as  the  eggs  laid  in  mid-summer  do  not  hatch  until 
late  next  spring,  a  period  of  possibly  eight  months.  The 
egg  masses  can  be  destroyed-when  found  by  soaking  them 
with  creosote  mixture  applied  with  a  small  swab  or  paint 
brush.  This  material  can  be  obtained  from  dealers  in 
farm  supplies. 

Scale  Insects 

Oyster  Shell  Scale.  This  insect  is  much  larger  than  the 
San  Jose  scale,  and  resembles  an  oyster  shell  in  shape.  On 
account  of  there  being  only  one  brood  in  a  season,  it  is 
easily  controlled.  Spraying  for  the  San  Jose  scale  will  also 
destroy  this  insect.  It  may  be  held  in  check  by  spraying 
about  the  second  week  in  June,  while  the  young  are  hatch- 
ing, with  kerosene  emulsion  or  self-boiled  lime-sulphur. 
When  numerous,  growers  should  determine  when  the  eggs 
are  hatching  by  watching  the  trees  carefully  after  the 
latter  part  of  March,  in  order  to  apply  the  remedy  before 
the  young  insects  become  protected  by  their  hard  scale 
covering.  In  general  practice  it  is  found  best  to  prune  off 
the  badly  infested  branches  during  the  fall  or  winter. 

Scurfy  Scale.  This  insect  is  a  native  of  America  found 
on  the  bark  of  the  native  crab  trees.  The  scales  are  some- 
what pear  shaped  in  outline  with  a  prominent  nipple  at  the 
pointed  end.  Its  color  is  grayish  or  whitish,  and  even 
when  numerous,  it  does  not  cause  the  trouble  that  can  be 


Tent  Caterpillar  147 

expected  from  San  Jose  scale.  Treatment  for  Oyster  Shell 
or  San  Jose  will  keep  this  scale  in  check. 

San  Jose  Scale.  This  is  the  most  destructive  scale  in- 
sect that  affects  deciduous  orchard  trees.  It  lives  on  near- 
ly all  kinds  of  woody  plants,  and  when  left  alone  is  capa- 
ble of  killing  a  tree  in  the  course  of  a  very  few  years.  The 
scales  are  very  small,  seldom  larger  than  the  head  of  a 
pin,  and  with  a  conspicuous  nipple  in  the  center.  Eggs  are 
never  deposited,  but  the  females  give  birth  to  living 
3'oung,  after  reaching  maturity  at  about  five  weeks  of  age. 
Each  female  is  capable  of  producing  about  400  offspring. 
The  characteristic  thing  about  San  Jose  scale  is  that  it 
causes  the  bark  to  turn  red,  especially  the  inner  bark  and 
the  shoots  of  some  species  of  plants.  Other  kinds  of  scales 
will  cause  a  reddish  appearance,  especially  on  the  fruit,  but 
when  the  reddish  color  of  the  inner  bark  is  pronounced, 
and  the  scales  are  circular  in  outline,  it  may  quite  likely  be 
San  Jose.  For  certain  identification  it  should  be  referred 
to  an  experiment  station  entomologist. 

The  most  effective  remedy  for  this  insect  is  spraying 
with  full  strength  lime-sulphur  solution  during  the  dormant 
period,  using  either  the  commercial  brands  or  home-made 
mixtures.  Miscible  oils  are  also  effective,  and  when  the 
commercial  brands  of  these  are  used,  the  directions  ac- 
companying them  should  be  followed,  as  serious  injury  to 
the  trees  can  come  from  using  these  in  too  strong  solu- 
tions. During  the  summer  an  application  of  self-boiled 
lime-sulphur  has  proven  itself  to  be  very  effective  in  de- 
stroying all  of  the  young  insects  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact,  and  in  coating  the  branches  so  as  to  make  it  diffi- 
cult for  the  young  to  find  a  place  to  settle. 

Other  Scale  Insects.  There  are  a  number  of  other  scale 
insects  which  attack  orchard  trees  and  shrubs,  some  of 
which  closely  resemble  the  San  Jose  scale  in  appearance. 
All  of  them  are  less  destructive  than  the  San  Jose,  and  are 
easily  controlled  when  precautionary  measures  are  taken 
such  as  for  the  control  of  San  Jose  scale. 

Tent  Caterpillar.  The  eggs  of  this  insect  are  deposited 
in  masses  in  rows  around  the  smaller  twigs  in  mid-summer, 


148  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

and  do  not  hatch  until  the  following  spring.  The  cater- 
pillars feed  on  the  leaves  spinning  a  web  as  they  go.  This 
soon  becomes  of  considerable  size  and  makes  an  unsightly 
appearance  on  the  trees.  When  full  grown  the  caterpillars 
are  about  two  inches  long,  somewhat  hairy  and  have  a 
white  streak  running  along  the  back.  On  their  sides  are  yel- 
lowish markings  and  underneath  they  are  quite  black.  The 
worms  mature  in  about  six  weeks,  and  make  cocoons  in 
sheltered  places,  issuing  as  moths  in  about  three  weeks. 
The  moths  are  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  with 
a  spread  of  wings  covering  about  one  and  three-fourths 
inches.  It  can  be  controlled  by  any  of  the  usual  arsenical 
sprays  that  are  applied  for  insects,  such  as  the  codling 
moth. 

Insects  That  Attack  the  Pear 

Pear  Leaf  Blister  Mite.  This  insect  attacks  both  pear 
and  apple,  although  usually  more  common  on  the  pear, 
from  which  it  gets  its  name.  It  appears  on  the  leaves  in 
the  spring  at  about  the  time  they  reach  their  full  size,  and 
cause  reddish  blisters  to  appear  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves. 

The  eggs  are  deposited  under  the  outer  scales  of  the 
buds  and  hatch  as  growth  begins  in  the  spring.  The  little 
mites  burrow  into  the  leaves,  where  they  cause  the  char- 
acteristic swellings.  These  swellings  in  spring  are  reddish, 
in  summer  they  turn  green  and  by  the  latter  part  of  sum- 
mer have  become  a  dark  brown. 

This  insect  is  not  at  all  difficult  to  control,  as  any  of 
the  mixtures  used  for  controlling  scale  will  keep  it  in 
check.  Lime-sulphur,  kerosene  emulsion  and  miscible  oils 
have  all  been  effective  in  preventing  injury  from  this  insect 
on  both  apples  and  pears. 

Pear  Slug.  Pear  trees  are  attacked  by  this  insect  in  the 
summer  and  again  in  the  late  summer  or  fall.  It  feeds  on 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves,  leaving  only  the  veins. 
Foliage  thus  eaten  falls  from  the  tree  and  leaves  the  trees 
bare.  This  insect  during  its  early  stages  is  a  slimy  slug, 


Black  Peach  Aphis 


149 


but  after  its  last  moult  the  slimy  covering  is  thrown  off 
and  the  skin  becomes  a  light  orange  color  and  clean  and 
dry.  It  then  goes  into  the  ground,  and  emerges  again  in 
twelve  or  fifteen  days  as  a  fly.  It  spends  the  winter  in  the 
pupal  stage  just  under  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Arsenical 
poisons,  either  dusted  or  sprayed  on  the  foliage  will  con- 
trol it.  Because  of  its  slimy  nature,  even  road  dust  thrown 
on  it  often  results  in  extermination. 


The  bag-worm:  A,  caterpillar  removed  from  the  bag; 
b,  male  chrysalis;  c,  wingless  and  legless  female  moth;  d, 
winged  male;  e,  bag  cut  open  showing  female  chrysalis  and 
eggs;  f,  caterpillar  in  the  bag;  g,  cones  made  by  the  little 
caterpillars  as  they  are  beginning  to  spin  their  bags. 


Black  Peach  Aphis.  These  plant  lice  are  shining  black 
in  color,  one  form  having  wings  and  the  other  possessing 
none.  They  feed  upon  the  juices  of  the  peach,  cherry  and 
plum  trees,  working  upon  the  leaves,  stem  and  roots.  They 
can  be  controlled  on  the  leaves  and  twigs  by  spraying  with 
the  tobacco  preparations  as  for  green  aphis.  If  very  nu- 
merous on  roots,  scrape  the  soil  away  and  apply  pulverized 
tobacco. 


150  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Bagworm.  These  insects  infest  nearly  all  kinds  of  trees 
and  shrubs,  and  will  consume  a  large  quantity  of  foliage 
during  the  summer,  frequently  defoliating  the  trees  com- 
pletely. It  is  the  larva  of  a  moth,  that  over-winters  in 
the  egg  stage  within  the  old  female  bags.  In  the  late 
spring  the  young  hatch  from  the  eggs  and  crawl  out 
on  the  twigs  to  the  nearest  leaf,  where  they  begin  to  feed 
and  begin  the  work  of  spinning  the  bags  for  them- 
selves. This  is  a  curious  and  interesting  process.  Into  the 
construction  of  the  bags  the  larvae  add  fragments  of  the 
foliage  and  leaf  stems,  securely  fastened  together  with  silk. 
It  is  easily  controlled  with  arsenical  sprays. 

Red  Spiders.  These  are  extremely  small  insects  which 
work  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  of  many  plants. 
They  are  common  in  greenhouses,  and  in  the  semi-arid  sec- 
tions of  the  West  they  are  becoming  quite  destructive  to 
orchard  and  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs.  When  present 
they  cause  the  leaves  to  become  yellowish  in  spots,  and 
upon  examination  the  under  surfaces  will  be  found  covered 
with  an  extremely  fine  web.  The  adults  will  appear  as 
very  small  red  or  brownish  specks  crawling  under  the  web, 
and  their  eggs  as  minute  glistening  beads  attached  to  the 
leaf  in  the  meshes  of  the  web.  The  adults  are  just  large 
enough  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye. 

In  the  greenhouse  they  can  be  kept  in  control  by  daily 
syringing  with  cold  water.  In  the  field  such  means  are 
impracticable,  but  the  Colorado  experiment  station  reports 
that  they  were  able  to  keep  red  spiders  controlled  by 
spraying  their  plants  with  sulphur  and  soapy  water  as 
used  for  the  brown  mite. 

Strawberry  Insects 

Leaf  Roller.  This  insect  appears  early  in  the  spring  as 
a  small  brown  moth,  measuring  about  half  an  inch  across 
the  wings.  It  deposits  its  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  the  straw- 
berry. The  larvae  are  greenish  brown,  and  when  full 
grown,  nearly  half  an  inch  in  length,  but  rather  slender. 
They  mature  in  June,  after  having  spun  a  web  which 


Root  Louse  151 

causes  the  familiar  rolling  upward  of  the  leaflets.  The 
soft  tissue  of  the  leaf  is  eaten  and  what  remains  turns 
reddish  brown,  giving  the  plant  a  burned  appearance. 
There  are  two  broods,  and  the  winter  is  passed  in  the  pupal 
condition.  Spray  the  plants  in  August  with  an  arsenical 
spray  at  the  time  the  second  brood  appears.  On  account 
of  the  first  brood  of  the  insects  pupating  in  the  rolled 
leaves,  the  foliage  may  be  mowed  off  and  burned,  thereby 
practically  exterminating  them  from  the  plantation. 

Sawfly;  Slug.  The  adult  of  this  insect  appears  in  spring 
and  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  tissues  of  the  stem  or  leaf.  The 
larvae  hatch  in  a  short  time  and  gnaw  holes  in  the  leaf, 
developing  in  the  course  of  five  or  six  weeks  into  pale 
green  worms  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long.  The 
larvae  burrow  slightly  beneath  the  surface  to  pupate, 
emerging  later  as  flies.  There  are  two  broods  in  the 
Southern  states  and  one  in  the  North.  Spray  the  foliage 
with  lead  arsenate  before  the  plants  bloom,  and  again  after 
the  fruit  has  been  harvested,  if  necessary. 

Strawberry  Weevil.  This  beetle  deposits  its  eggs  in 
the  developing  flower  bud  of  a  pollen-producing  straw- 
berry. The  insect  punctures  a  bud  and  turns  and  deposits 
its  eggs  into  the  puncture,  then  shoves  it  down  into  the 
bud  with  its  beak.  It  then  passes  down  the  stem  of  the 
developing  flower,  where  it  punctures  the  stem,  shutting 
off  the  supply  of  sap,  and  the  bud  shrivels  and  drops  to  the 
ground.  There  the  larva  develops  to  maturity  and  emerges 
as  an  adult  beetle  in  about  a  month  from  the  time  the  egg^ 
was  deposited. 

Spraying  with  arsenicals  is  recommended,  although, 
from  the  feeding  habits  of  the  beetle  it  will  hardly  get 
enough  poison  to  destroy  it.  Mulch  the  field  with  straw 
and  burn  it  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  off.  The  least  amount  of 
damage  will  come  by  planting,  pistillate  varieties,  setting 
four  rows  pistillate  with  one  row  of  some  variety  of  stam- 
inate  berry,  capable  of  producing  an  abundance  of  pollen. 
The  weevil  attacks  only  the  staminate  flowers,  and  lives  on 
the  pollen  cells. 

Root  Louse.    The  life  of  this  aphis  is  similar  in  general 


152  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

to  other  plant  lice.  They  appear  first  on  the  foliage  and 
tender  young  leaves  in  the  crown  of  the  plant,  and  col- 
onies of  them  may  even  be  found  on  the  roots  of  the 
strawberry,  where  they  have  been  carried  by  a  species  of 
ant,  which  places  them  in  specially  prepared  galleries. 

The  most  effective  remedy,  perhaps,  is  to  plant  the  ber- 
ries in  new  ground  every  third  year.  Fumigation  of  the 
plants  before  planting  will  free  them  of  any  living  insects, 
and  spraying  with  black  leaf  when  the  lice  are  first  noticed 
in  the  spring  will  keep  them  well  in  check. 

Crown  Borer.  This  is  a  white  grub  which  works  in  the 
crown  of  the  plants  along  in  mid-summer.  This  grub  is 
about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long,  and  develops  into  a  cur- 
culio  or  weevil.  To  control  this  insect  by  spraying  is 
rather  difficult  on  account  of  its  habits.  The  best  means 
of  control  is  to  burn  over  the  fields  immediately  after  the 
fruit  has  been  picked.  Any  plants  remaining  which  are  in- 
fested should  be  dug  up  and  burned. 

Grape  Insects 

Leaf  Folder.  This  is  the  larva  of  a  moth  having  wings 
of  black,  bordered  with  white,  and  with  white  spots  on  the 
upper  sides.  The  adult  lays  its  eggs  on  the  upper  side  of 
the  leaves.  As  soon  as  hatched  the  larvae  begin  to  feed  on 
the  tissue  of  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves,  leaving  only 
the  hard  veins  and  skin  of  the  lower  side.  As  it  feeds  it 
spins  a  web  over  itself  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  the 
sides  of  the  leaf  together,  forming  a  fold  in  the  leaf.  It 
pupates  within  the  folded  leaf.  Because  of  its  leaf-eat- 
ing habit  it  can  be  controlled  with  any  of  the  usual  arsen- 
ical sprays. 

Flea  Beetle.  This  is  a  small  steel-blue  beetle  about  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  long,  which  is  readily  disturbed  on  the 
vines,  and  has  the  habit  of  dropping  to  the  ground.  It 
passes  the  winter  in  the  adult  condition,  and  in  early 
spring  attacks  the  opening  buds  and  tender  young  leaves. 
Soon  after  the  leaves  appear  the  female  commences  laying 
eggs,  which  are  orange  colored,  on  the  under  side  of  the 


Leaf  Hopper  153 

leaves.  These  quickly  hatch  and  the  larvae  feed  on  the 
tissues  of  the  leaves,  puncturing  them  full  of  holes.  There 
is  a  second  brood  of  the  beetles  which  appears  about  the 
middle  of  July.  Spraying  with  arsenical  materials  will  de- 
stroy this  troublesome  little  pest. 

Rose  Chafer.  This  is  a  long-legged,  awkward-looking 
beetle  which  attacks  a  great  many  different  kinds  of  plants 
during  the  summer.  It  responds  very  slowly  to  any  poisons, 
so  that  in  small  areas  hand  picking  of  the  insects  is  prob- 
ably the  best  treatment.  In  commercial  plantations  spray- 
ing with  arsenate  of  lead  will  keep  the  insect  under  con- 
trol. 

Berry  Worm.  There  are  two  kinds  of  insects  which 
cause  worms  in  the  berries  of  grapes.  One  of  these  is  the 
larva  of  a  moth.  This  worm  is  about  half  an  inch  long, 
of  a  bluish  black  color,  that  spins  a  web  and  lets  itself  to 
the  ground.  The  other  is  the  grub  of  the  ctirculio.  Some 
seasons  either  or  both  of  these  insects  may  be  very  numer- 
ous, while  in  others  they  will  be  of  no  consequence.  Thor- 
ough spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  will  give  quite  effec- 
tive control  of  both  insects,  although  the  curculio  can  be 
more  effectively  controlled  if  the  vineyard  is  kept  in  clean 
cultivation,  and  the  soil  stirred  quite  frequently  during  the 
middle  and  latter  portions  of  the  summer.  This  will  bring 
to  the  surface  of  the  scil  the  pupal  cells  of  the  insect,  which 
will  perish  upon  exposure  to  the  light.  Spraying  with 
arsenate  after  the  fruit  sets  and  again  when  the  berries  are 
about  half  grown  will  help  in  controlling  these  insects. 

Leaf  Hopper.  This  is  a  very  small,  inconspicuous  in- 
sect that  jumps  from  the  leaves  of  the  vine  when  disturbed. 
It  comes  in  great  swarms  and  does  great  damage  to  the 
vines  by  sucking  the  juice  of  the  foliage  frojn  the  under 
side.  Thorough  spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  at  the 
rate  of  one  to  ten,  is  the  most  effective  means  of  con- 
trolling it.  In  applying  the  spray  it  needs  to  be  done  with 
3">od  pressure  and  through  a  fine  nozxle  so  as  to  fill  the 
air  with  a  mist.  Those  ins 2::  s  which  are  not  hit  while  on 
the  vine  will  get  more  or  less  upon  themselves  as  they  hop 
through  the  mist,  and  be  destroyed. 


154  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Grape-Cane  Gall  Maker.  This  is  a  little  hectic  of  the 
curcuiio  family,  which  is  very  closely  related  to  the  grape- 
cane  girdler,  except  that  the  gall  maker  is  of  dark  brown 
color  and  the  girdler  is  shining  black.  Thus  far  its  in- 
juries have  not  been  of  great  seriousness,  although  present 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  over  quite  a  large  area  of  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  United  States.  The  female  makes 
a  series  of  holes  in  the  grape  canes,  usually  beyond 
the  terminal  cluster  of  fruit,  in  which  she  deposits  her  eggs. 
These  hatch  into  a  small  larva  which  feeds  on  the  tissue 
of  the  cane  and  causes  the  formation  of  a  gall  of  consid- 
erable size.  It  can  be  controlled  by  removing  these  canes 
having  galls,  and  arsenical  sprays  may  keep  the  insects 
under  control. 

Grape-Cane  Girdler.  This  insect,  instead  of  making  a 
line  of  holes  up  and  down  the  canes,  makes  a  ring  of  holes, 
in  only  one  of  which  an  egg  is  deposited.  Then  above  this 
place  where  the  egg  is  deposited  she  girdles  the  cane  so 
that  it  breaks  off.  The  larva  lives  in  the  stub.  Removing 
the  affected  canes  and  spraying  with  arsenical  sprays,  to- 
gether with  keeping  the  vineyard  in  clean  cultivation  will 
keep  this  insect  controlled. 

Raspberry  Cane  Borer.  This  is  the  larva  of  a  small 
black  beetle,  which  makes  two  rows  of  holes  about  an  inch 
apart  near  the  tips  of  the  canes  in  June,  and  deposits  an 
egg  just  above  the  lower  girdle.  The  larva  attains  a  length 
of  nearly  an  inch  and  bores  down  into  the  cane,  causing  it 
to  wilt.  Cut  off  the  wilted  canes  below  the  lower  girdle  and 
burn  them. 

Vegetable  Insects 

% 

Asparagus  Beetle.  There  are  two  kinds  of  beetles  known 
by  this  name,  one  of  them  is  blue  in  color,  and  the  other 
a  dark  red,  with  twelve  black  spots  on  its  wing  covers. 
Both  of  them  attack  asparagus  as  it  is  starting  into  growth 
and  eat  holes  in  the  young  tips,  also  eating  the  foliage 
and  seed  capsules.  Allow  a  few  hills  to  remain  uncut,  and 
keep  them  sprayed  with  arsenical  poisons.  These  hills  will 


Apples  155 

serve  as  trap  plants,  drawing  the  insects  away  from   the 
ones  that  are  to  be  used  for  cutting. 

Bean  Weevil.  This  insect  deposits  its  eggs  on  the 
young  pods  and  the  larvae  bore  into  the  developing  seeds, 
where  they  do  not  reach  maturity  until  fall.  Then  they 
emerge  if  the  season  is  warm,  otherwise  remaining  in  the 
seed  until  spring.  When  present  the  beans  should  be 
fumigated  immediately  after  harvest,  using  one  ounce  of 
carbon  bisulphide  for  every  hundred  pounds  of  beans,  and 
leaving  the  bin  closed  for  forty-eight  hours. 

Fungous  Diseases 

Apples 

Bitter  Rot.  The  conditions  most  favorable  to  the  de- 
velopment of  this  disease  are  hot  weather,  accompanied  by 
frequent  rains  and  heavy  dews  at  the  period  when  the  fruit 
is  approaching  maturity.  Dry  weather  at  that  time  will 
not  cause  a  serious  outbreak  of  the  disease. 

This  is  the  most  destructive  fungous  disease  of  the 
apple,  causing  a  greater  actual'loss  than  does  apple  scab. 
F»ut  its  virulence  varies  greatly  with  local  conditions,  and 
it  may  not  cause  serious  trouble  every  year.  It  occurs 
throughout  the  entire  eastern  part  of  the  United  States. 
Tt  appears  on  the  fruit,  causing  it  to  rot,  and  is  also  found 
on  the  branches  in  the  form  of  cankers.  On  the  fruit  it 
first  appears  as  a  small  brown  speck  at  about  the  time  the 
fruit  is  beginning  to  ripen.  As  soon  as  this  spot  attains  a 
size  slightly  smaller  than  a  dime  it  becomes  sunken  in  the 
middle  and  produces  numerous  small  pustules  in  concentric 
lings,  giving  rise  to  the  summer  spores.  The  tissue  of  the 
fruit  near  the  rotting  areas  is  decidedly  bitter,  from  which 
fact  this  fungus  gets  its  name.  The  rotting  areas  continue 
tc  increase  in  size  until  the  entire  fruit  decays.  Many  of 
these  decayed  fruits  do  not  drop  from  the  trees,  but  re- 
main hanging  to  the  branches  throughout  the  winter.  In 
the  spring  these  "mummied"  fruits,  as  they  are  called,  give. 


156  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

rise  to  a  new  crop  of  spores  that  infect  the  new  crop  of 
fruit. 

On  the  branches  this  fungus  causes  the  formation  of 
cankers,  or  areas  of  dead  bark.  The  fungus  is  believed  to 
live  in  these  cankered  areas  for  two  years,  giving  rise  to  a 
crop  of  spores  which  falls  onto  the  fruit,  causing  the  char- 
acteristic black,  decaying  areas. 

As  a  means  of  preventing  damage  from  bitter  rot,  one 
of  the  first  preventive  measures  should  be  a  thorough  ex- 
amination of  the  trees  while  in  a  dormant  condition,  and 
removing  all  of  the  branches  and  limbs  which  show  signs 
of  infestation.  All  of  the  mummied  fruit  which  remains 
en  the  branches  should  be  removed  and  burned.  Then  the 
trees  should  be  given  a  thorough  spraying  with  bordeaux 
mixture.  As  many  as  six  applications  of  this  mixture  will 
be  needed,  beginning  in  the  spring,  and  applying  the  spray 
at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks  until  July,  and  even  after 
that  date  if  bitter  rot  should  appear.  Experiments  carried 
on  by  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  go  to  show  that  the 
early  sprayings  are  more  effective  in  controlling  this  dis- 
ease than  if  the  spraying  is  not  done  until  after  the  disease 
appears.  The  work  of  spraying  should  be  done  thoroughly, 
so  as  to  coat  every  fruit  and  leaf. 

Blotch.  This  disease  occurs  through  the  southern  and 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States  where  it  causes  serious 
damage  to  the  fruit  on  several  different  varieties  of  apples. 
On  the  fruits  these  blotches  appear  as  dark  colored,  star- 
shaped  areas,  often  being  so  numerous  on  an  apple  as  to 
cover  the  entire  fruit.  It  attacks  only  the  skin  of  the 
fruit,  so  that  the  continued  growth  of  the  underlying  tissue 
frequently  causes  the  fruit  to  crack.  The  fungus  does  not 
rot  the  fruit  as  in  the  case  of  bitter  rot,  but  mars  the  ap- 
pearance so  as  to  make  it  unsalable. 

The  fungus  also  attacks  the  twigs  and  branches  on 
which  it  causes  the  formation  of  small  and  rather  incon- 
spicuous cankers.  On  the  rapidly  growing  shoots  and 
watersprouts  these  cankers  have  the  same  general  appear- 
ance as  on  the  fruit.  The  fungus  lives  in  the  cankers  for 


Brown  Spot,  Baldwin  Fruit  Spot-  157 

a  number  of  years.  On  the  leaves  it  appears  as  minute 
specks,  scarcely  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
of  irregular  shape,  and  usually  yellowish  or  whitish,  with 
one  or  more  small  black  specks  in  the  center.  When  very 
numerous,  they  may  cause  the  foliage  to  fall. 

To  control  this  fungus  make  five  or  six  applications  of 
bordeaux  mixture,  as  for  bitter  rot. 


Apple  blotch  on  a  Maiden  Blush  apple,  natural  size. 

Brown  Spot,  Baldwin  Fruit  Spot.  This  disease  is  caused 
by  a  fungus  which  finds  entrance  into  the  apple  during 
mid-summer,  and  causes  the  fruit  to  deepen  in  color  wher- 
ever the  fungus  may  have  found  entrance.  At  the  time  the 
fruit  is  ripening  it  causes  small  brownish  areas  to  form, 
which  become  somewhat  sunken,  and  the  flesh  to  become 
dry,  brown  and  quite  bitterish  to  the  taste.  It  can  be  con- 
trolled by  spraying  with  bordeaux  mixture  or  even  weaker 
fungicides. 


158  The  Fru it-Growers  Guide-Book 

Twig  Blight.     (See  under  Pear.) 

Black  Rot.  This  is  a  fungus  causing  the  decay  of  ap- 
ples, quinces  and  pears,  and  has  become  well  known,  al- 
though it  is  not  a  serious  disease.  Its  most  objectionable 
and  serious  character  is  that  it  causes  large  cankers  to 
form  on  the  Hmbs  of  the  affected  trees.  The  fruits  that 
are  attacked  rot  quickly,  but  do  not  show  the  shrinking  of 
the  tissues  as  in  the  case  of  bitter  rot.  After  the  rotting 
has  become  quite  well  advanced  the  diseased  area  will  be- 
come quite  spotted  with  small  black  specks  from  which 
the  spores  issue.  It  occurs  most  commonly  on  neglected 
and  fallen  fruit,  and  upon  fruit  in  the  storage  cellar.  The 
cankers  appear  as  deadened  areas  of  the  bark,  some- 
what shrunken  and  producing  many  little  pustules  from 
which  the  spores  arise.  Removal  of  the  cankers  and  thor- 
ough spraying  with  bordeaux  mixture  gives  the  most  com- 
plete satisfaction,  although  preventive  measures  have  not 
been  well  worked  out.  Clean  orchards  are  affected  the 
least. 

Crown  Gall.  This  disease  is  due  to  an  organism  that 
attacks  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  plants,  mostly  of 
the  family  Rosaceae,  causing  large  swellings  to  form  on 
the  roots  or  at  the  crown  of  the  plant.  It  is  exceedingly 
troublesome  in  nurseries,  and  appears  as  large  soft  galls, 
and  may  also  be  present  as  a  mass  of  fine  hairy  roots. 
In  the  Western  states  it  is  very  troublesome  as  the 
organism  seems  to  find  congenial  conditions  for  its  devel- 
opment and  distribution.  The  galls  increase  in  size  rapidly 
and  usually  last  for  only  one  season,  after  which  they 
decay,  only  to  reappear  again  the  next  season.  Trees  are 
frequently  so  badly  affected  as  to  either  die  or  be  of  little 
value. 

No  means  is  known  of  preventing  the  spread  of  the 
disease  or  of  destroying  it  after  it  has  once  entered  a  tree. 
Careful  inspection  of  nursery  stock  and  burning  all  of  the 
infested  trees  is  all  that  can  be  suggested  at  the  present 
time. 

"Fly  Speck,  Sooty  Blotch.  These  diseases  ordinarily 
appear  on  the  fruit  from  unsprayed  trees,  in  low  ground, 


Rust  159 

and  upon  the  lower  limbs  of  trees  in  dryer  locations.  It  is 
purely  a  skin  disease  and  causes  no  injury  aside  from  dis- 
figuring the  appearance  of  the  fruit.  Can  be  easily  con- 
trolled with  bordeaux  mixture  or  any  of  the  ordinary 
fungicides. 

Mildew.  The  powdery  mildew  often  occurs  on  the 
young  shoots  of  nursery  stock,  making  a  dense  felt-like 
growth  over  the  leaves  and  twigs.  It  can  be  controlled 
with  any  of  the  usual  fungicides. 


Apple  blossoms.  On  the  left,  just  right  for  the  first  ap- 
plication of  spray  to  control  scab  and  codling  moth.  Cluster 
on  the  right  is  too  late  for  the  codling  moth. 

Rust.  The  bright  orange  colored  patches  of  rust  that 
are  to  be  found  on  the  leaves  and  fruit  of  apples,  pear  and 
quince,  as  well  as  upon  the  wild  thorn  and  crab  trees,  are 
caused  by  the  same  fungus  which  makes  the  "cedar  ap- 
ples" on  cedar  trees.  It  spends  a  part  of  Its  existence  on 
the  apple  trees  and  the  other  part  on  the  cedar,  so  that 
the  most  effective  means  of  controlling  this  fungus  is  to 


160  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

get  rid  of  the  cedar  trees.  Spraying  with  bordeaux  mix- 
ture or  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  aids  in  checking  the  dis- 
ease, but  does  not  give  perfect  control. 

Root  Rot.  This  trouble  is  of  common  occurrence  in 
several  parts  of  the  country.  In  the  Middle  West  it  oc- 
curs more  frequently  on  trees  which  have  been  planted  on 
land  newly  cleared  from  oak  timber.  In  such  cases  it 
seems  to  be  caused  by  a  fungus  which  is  found  on  the  oak. 
Before  planting  an  orchard  on  newly  cleaned  land,  it  is 
best  to  wait  for  a  few  years  and  let  the  land  become  freed 
of  the  fungus  by  natural  agencies. 


Apple  affected  by  scab. 

In  the  Western  states  a  condition  resulting  in  the  death 
of  the  roots  and  portions  of  the  bark  of  the  trunk  has  been 
laid  to  poisoning  from  excessive  use  of  arsenical  sprays. 
This  belief  is  doubted  on  good  authority,  however,  as  in 
some  of  the  Western  sections,  in  orchards  which  have 
never  been  sprayed,  and  in  soils  entirely  free  from  arsenic, 
the  same  trouble  is  said  to  exist. 

Scab.  Apple  scab  is  common  to  all  orchards,  except  in 
some  portions  of  the  semi-arid  sections  of  the  West.  It 
attacks  the  fruit  and  leaves,  on  which  it  causes  large  black 


Scab 


161 


velvety  patches.  It  not  only  injures  the  appearance  of  the 
fruit,  but  by  its  attacks  on  the  foliage,  it  may  prevent  the 
formation  of  a  crop  of  fruit. 


Apple  leaves  covered  with  the  fungus  that  causes  scab. 

It  is  most  serious  when  the  weather  is  cold  and  wet. 
early  in  the  season.  Because  of  this  the  dropping  of 
apples,  which  is  often  attributed  to  improper  pollination 

(6) 


162  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

during  such  season,  is  directly  due  to  the  ravages  of  scab 
on  the  young  fruits.  All  varieties  of  apples  are  attacked  by 
scab,  but  some  varieties  more  so  than  others.  Thorough 
spraying  with  bordeaux  mixture  just  before  the  buds  open 
and  again  after  the  petals  fall,  followed  by  a  third  appli- 
cation two  or  three  weeks  later,  will  keep  it  under  perfect 
control.  Recent  experiments  lead  to  the  opinion  that  lime- 
sulphur  and  arsenate  of  lead  applied  as  for  the  codling 
moth  will  give  immunity  from  this  disease. 

Cherry 

Black  Knot.  This  disease  occurs  on  the  cherry,  apricot, 
plum  and  prune,  causing  the  formation  of  large  black  galls 
or  knots  on  the  limbs  and  branches.  These  are  frequently 
infested  with  insects  which  burrow  -within  the  galls.  Re- 
moval of  the  galls  by  cutting  out  diseased  limbs  and  spray- 
ing with  any  standard  fungicide  before  growth  begins  in 
spring  will  eliminate  the  disease. 

Leaf  Spot.  This  disease  attacks  the  cherry  and  plum 
upon  the  foliage  of  which  it  causes  the  formation  of  small 
brown  spots,  the  dead  centers  of  which  fall  out,  causing  a 
"shot-hole"  appearance.  When  very  prevalent  it  will  cause 
defoliation  of  the  -trees.  Apply  bordeaux  mixture  before 
the  buds  open  and  keep  the  orchard  clean. 

Powdery  Mildew.  This  fungus  is  found  on  the  sprouts 
and  young^  shoots  of  the  cherry,  although  in  favorable 
seasons  it  may  attack  all  of  the  foliage  and  cause  defoli- 
ation. It  can  be  controlled  by  spraying  with  fungicides. 

Currants 

Aathracnose.  This  fungus  also  occurs  on  gooseberries, 
causing  the  formation  of  small  brown  spots  on  the  leaves 
which  turn  yellow  and  drop  when  seriously  attacked.  On 
the  stems  the  fungus  makes  small  circular  areas.  Cut- 
ting out  the  affected  canes  and  spraying  with  bordeaux 
mixture  before  the  buds  open  will  control  the  disease. 

Cane  Blight.  This  fungus  causes  serious  trouble  in 
some  sections  by  killing  the  canes.  Upon  the  dead  canes 


Orange  Rust  163 

it  will  appear  as  a  bright  pink  mass  a  short  time  after  the 
cane  dies.  Spraying  will  help  to  keep  the  plantation  in 
a  sanitary  condition,  but  plants  which  have  been  attacked 
seldom  recover  and  should  be  dug  up  and  burned. 

Dropsy.  This  disease  is  possibly  due  to  a  physiological 
trouble.  It  causes  a  considerable  enlargement  of  the 
stem.  Cutting  out  the  affected  canes  is  most  effective. 

Blackberries  and  Raspberries 

Anthracnose.  This  fungus  causes  small  purplish  spots 
to  form  on  the  canes.  Later  these  spots  become  gray  and 
sunken,  giving  somewhat  the  "bird's  eye"  effect.  The 
stems  and  leaves  may  also  become  affected  and  result  in 
severe  injury  to  the  entire  plant.  Control  measures  have 
not  proven  as  satisfactory  with  this  disease  as  with 
many  'others.  Keeping  the  plantation  in  a  thoroughly  sani- 
tary condition  by  cultivating  and  spraying,  and  removing 
the  affected  canes  as  fast  as  they  show  are  about  the  best 
means  of  control. 

Cane  Blight.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  this 
disease  has  caused  considerable  loss  to  small  fruit  grow- 
ers. It  is  a  wilt  disease  attacking  the  young  canes  and 
causing  the  affected  portions  to  wilt  and  die.  Planting 
healthy  vines  and  removing  the  diseased  portions  when 
they  appear  are  best  means  of  control. 

Crown  Gall.     (See  Apple.) 

Orange  Rust.  Among  raspberries  and  blackberries 
there  is  a-  noticeable  difference  in  different  varieties  in  re- 
sisting this  disease.  Kittitinny  blackberry  is  about  the  most 
susceptible,  although  some  varieties  of  dewberries  are  eas- 
ily affected.  The  fungus  causing  this  disease  appears  on 
the  foliage,  the  under  surface  of  which  turns  a  bright 
orange  color,  and  the  skin  breaks  open,  liberating  the 
brightly  colored  spores.  Affected  canes  are  usually  much 
more  spindling  than  those  which  are  healthy.  Spraying 
has  not  proved  to  be  of  much  service  in  controlling  this 
disease.  Keeping  the  plantation  clean  and  removing  the 


164  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

affected  plants  as  they  appear,  and  before  they  begin  to 
shed  their  spores,  is,  perhaps,  the  best  means  of  fighting 
the  disease. 

Grape 

Anthracnose.  Anthracnose  or  bird's  eye  disease  of  the 
grape  is  well  distributed  throughout  the  country.  The 
fungus  causing  it  may  be  found  on  the  canes,  leaves  and 
fruit,  although  by  far  more  commonly  on  the  fruit.  It 
causes  the  formation  of  grayish  spots  which  are  bordered 
with  a  purplish  or  reddish  ring.  It  is  difficult  to  control, 
although  those  vineyards  which  are  thoroughly  sprayed 
for  black  rot  contain  but  little  of  the  anthracnose. 

Black  Rot.  The  berries  are  most  severely  affected  by 
this  fungus,  although  the  leaves  are  first  attacked.  On  the 
berries  a  circular  black  spot  first  appears,  gradually  en- 
larging, and  in  the  center  of  which  small  black  pustules 
appear,  from  which  the  spores  of  the  fungus  are  liberated 
It  usually  attacks  the  berries  at  about  the  time  they  are 
two-thirds  grown  and  will  destroy  the  entire  crop  before 
ripening  time  unless  preventive  measures  are  taken. 

The  most  effective  treatment  consists  in  spraying  the 
vines  with  bordeaux  mixture  at  the  time  the  buds  -are  be- 
ginning to  open,  and  then  another  application  immediately 
after  the  new  shoots  appear,  but  before  the  flowers  open. 
After  blooming,  the  vines  should  have  an  application  of 
bordeaux  every  two  weeks  until  five  or  six  applications 
have  been  made.  If  the  disease  appears  at  about  the  time 
the  fruit  is  beginning  to  ripen,  ammoniacal  copper  carbon- 
ate will  be  a  better  spray  to  use,  as  it  will  not  soil  the 
appearance  of  the  fruit. 

Downy  Mildew.  This  disease  is  widely  spread  through- 
out all  of  the  grape  producing  sections  of  America  and 
Europe.  The  first  indication  of  the  disease  is  the  forma- 
tion of  yellowish  spots  of  irregular  shape  and  size  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  leaf.  On  the  under  surface  these  spots 
will  be  covered  with  a  white  downy  growth  on  which  the 
spores  of  the  fungus  are  produced.  The  fungus  attacks 


Peach   Blight  165 

the  berries  when  young,  causing  a  mouldy  growth  to  cover 
the  entire  fruit  and  even  an  entire  bunch  of  fruit. 

This  fungus  is  of  distinct  historic  importance,  since  it 
was  the  disease  which  was  introduced  into  Europe  and 
which  later  led  to  the  discovery  of  bordeaux  mixture. 
This  spray,  applied  before  the  buds  open,  and  again  at 
intervals  of  two  weeks  until  the  flowers  open,  then  another 
application  immediately  after  the  flowers  fall,  will  hold 
the  disease  under  control. 

Powdery  Mildew.  In  moist  seasons,  and  in  low  ground, 
this  fungus  frequently  causes  trouble  by  its  attacks  upon 
the  foliage,  and  to  a  small  extent  the  berries  of  the  grapeJ 
It  appears  as  a  powdery,  mouldy  growth  on  both  the  upper, 
and  under  surface  of  the  leaves,  causing  them  to  arch  more 
or  less  when  the  disease  is  very  bad.  It  can  be  controlled 
by  any  of  the  usual  spraying  operations. 

Peach  Diseases 


Peach  Blight 

This  disease  occurs  at  the  present  time  in  the  Western 
states,  where  it  has  become  quite  common  from  Colorado 
westward  to  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  disease  makes  its  first  appearance  in  the  fall  and 
during  the  winter,  in  which  the  buds  are  killed  and  growth 
consequently  prevented  for  the  next  spring.  It  attacks  the 
fruit  early  in  the  season,  on  which  it  produces  small  cir- 
cular spots,  some  of  which  may  be  covered  with  a  drop 
of  gum.  On  the  twigs  it  produces  spots,  which  may  be 
more  or  less  gummy,  and  some  of  which  may  encircle  the 
twig,  causing  it  to  die. 

It  attacks  both  the  peach  and  the  apricot,  and  causes  a 
greater  loss  to  the  Western  fruit  men  than  any  other  one 
fungous  disease.  It  can  be  very  easily  controlled  with 
either  bordeaux  mixture  or  lime-sulphur.  Fall  applications? 
are  most  effective  and  should  be  made  as  soon  after  the 
late  fruit  is  gathered  as  possible.  If  San  Jose  scale  it  pres- 


166    ,  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

ent,  lime-sulphur — 1  to  10  or  12 — should  be  used,  otherwise 
bordeaux  will  be  best.  A  second  application  should  be 
made  in  the  spring  at  about  the  first  of  May  and  a  third 
application  in  about  three  weeks,  and  if  the  disease  is 
especially  troublesome,  or  if  the  weather  should  be  rainy, 
a  fourth  spraying  should  be  made  in  about  ten  days  after 
the  third. 


Brown  rot,  altogether  too  familiar  to  most  peach  growers. 

Brown  Rot 

This  disease  is  capable  of  the  most  extensive  damage 
to  the  peach  crop  in  the  states  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, since  it  attacks  the  fruit  at  ripening  time,  causing 
it  to  rot  within  a  very  few  hours.  It  attacks  all  kinds  of 
stone  fruits,  but  causes  the  greatest  amount  of  loss  to 
peaches  and  plums.  The  disease  makes  itself  evident  by 
the  small  dark  brown  decayed  spots,  which  rapidly  enlarge 
and  produce  on  its  surface  small  tufts  of  brown  spores. 
It  may  attack  the  flowers,  twigs  and  leaves,  but  usually 
confines  its  operations  to  the  fruit. 


Peach  Scab  167 

The  spread  of  the  disease  is  materially  assisted  by  the 
plum  curculio,  which  punctures  the  skin  of  the  fruit  and 
admits  the  fungus  spores.  Until  recently  this  disease  has 
been  controlled  only  with  difficulty,  but  investigations 
of  the  past  three  years  demonstrate  that  by  spraying  with 
self-boiled  lime-sulphur  containing  2  pounds  of  lead  arsen- 
ate  to  50  gallons  of  the  mixture,  the  disease  can  be  held 
well  in  check.  This  spray  should  be  applied  about  three 
times,  first  application  at  just  about  the  time  the  "shucks" 
are  falling  from  the  newly  set  fruit;  two  other  applications 
may  be  needed  at  intervals  of  about  two  weeks.  It  is  im- 
portant that  the  arsenate  of  lead  be  added,  as  it  holds  the 
curculio  in  check  and  seems  also  to  add  to  the  fungicidal 
value  of  the  lime-sulphur. 

Frosty  Mildew 

This  disease  causes  a  mouldy  appearance  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  foliage  of  the  peach.  It  is  most  common  in 
the  Atlantic  Coast  States,  but  is  not  a  serious  trouble  and 
can  be  controlled  by  early  spraying. 

Leaf  Curl 

Leaf  curl  is  a  disease  which  is  more  or  less  common  in 
all  sections  where  peaches  are  grown.  It  is  most  trouble- 
some in  spring  when  the  weather  is  cold  and  damp.  It  is 
due  to  a  fungus  which  causes  the  leaves  to  curl  and  become 
badly  deformed,  finally  dropping  from  the  tree.  The  twigs 
and  even  the  flowers  may  be  attacked.  Thorough  spraying 
with  bordeaux  mixture  in  late  winter  or  early  spring,  just 
before  growth  begins,  will  keep  this  disease  in  perfect 
control. 

Peach  Scab 

This  disease  is  widespread  throughout  the  peach  pro- 
ducing areas  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  country,  where 
it  occurs  to  a  damaging  extent  on  practically  all  varieties 
of  peaches,  and  particularly  those  with  white  flesh.  Its 
commonest  appearance  is  a  black  velvety  patch  on  one 
side  of  the  peach,  or  it  may  occur  in  many  small  circular 


168 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


patches,  in  which  condition  it  is  often  known  as  ''freckles." 
When  very  severe  it  will  cause  the  fruit  to  be  somewhat 
dwarfed  in  size,  and  make  the  flesh  crack  open,  thereby 
exposing  it  to  attacks  of  black  rot. 

It  usually  occurs  along  in  the  same  orchards  with 
brown  rot,  and  has  always  been  a  troublesome  disease  to 
control, although  it  is  well  known  now  that  it  can  be  kept  in 
perfect  control  by  spraying  during  the  summer  season  with 
self-boiled  lime-sulphur.  This  material  should  be  made  and 
applied  in  the  same  manner  as  for  the  control  of  brown  rot. 
In  orchards  that  are  sprayed  for  brown  rot  there  will  be  but 
little  trouble  from  scab. 


/ 


A  well  developed  case  of  peach  scab.     The  skin  cracked 
open,  exposing  the  flesh  to  infection  of  brown  rot. 


Pear 
Blight 

This  disease  is  very  widespread  in  the  United  States, 
occurring  in  every  pear  growing  section,  and  has  practical- 


Blight 


169 


ly  driven  the  commercial  production  of  pears  out  of  a  num- 
ber of  localities.  It  attacks  not  only  the  pear,  but  also  the 
apple,  quince,  wild  crabs  and  thorns,  and  has  even  been 


Branch  of  pear  infected  with  blight  through  the  flower 
clusters. 


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The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


known  1o  attack  the  plum.  It  is  known  by  a  variety  of 
names,  such  as  twig  blight,  fire  blight,  blossom  blight,  etc. 
It  is  a  bacterial  disease,  the  organisms  working  entirely 
within  the  host,  where  it  cannot  be  reached  by  any  spray 
or  wash  that  may  be  applied. 


Body  of  pear  tree  infected  with  blight  through  the  care- 
less removal  of  a  limb.  Pruning  tools  should  be  sterilized, 
likewise  the  wounds,  and  then  covered  with  paint,  wax  or 
tanglefoot. 

The  disease  usually  appears  on  trees  at  just  the  time 
they  are  in  bloom,  as  the  organisms  causing  the  disease 
are  carried  from  tree  to  tree  by  the  bees  and  other  insects 
which  visit  the  flowers.  They  may  also  be  transported  by 
numerous  kinds  of  leaf  feeding  insects  and  thus  be  carried 
to  the  twigs  of  many  trees  which  are  not  in  bloom.  When 


Plum  Pockets  171 

the  leaves  and  blossoms  are  attacked  by  this  blight  they 
are  turned  a  very  dark  or  even  black  color  very  quickly. 
Where  the  disease  has  advanced  far  enough  as  to  attack 
the  limbs  or  even  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  it  causes  a  water 
soaked  appearance  of  the  wood  and  bark,  followed  by 
shrinking  and  cracking  of  the  bark  from  which  drops  of  a 
sticky  substance  may  exude.  These  drops  are  masses  of 
the  germs  and  may  be  carried  by  insects  to  other  trees  and 
the  disease  extended. 

For  many  years  after  the  cause  of  this  trouble  was 
known  it  was  believed  that  it  was  impossible  to  stop  it 
after  it  had  once  gained  entrance  to  the  tree.  However, 
it  has  been  found  out  that  the  disease  can  be  kept  in  per- 
fect control  by  pruning.  It  is  highly  important  that  the 
orchard  be  gone  over  several  times  during  the  winter  and 
every  twig  and  branch  that  shows  signs  of  this  disease  be 
carefully  cut  out,  the  cut  being  made  fully  a  foot,  or  in 
some  instances  more  below  the  lowest  sign  of  the  disease. 
The  wounds  should  then  be  sterilized  with  corrosive  subli- 
mate, and  the  tools  also  sterilized  with  the  same  fluid  before 
touching  them  to  any  other  branch.  The  germs  can  be 
carried  on  the  pruning  tools,  and  unless  thorough  sterili- 
zation is  practiced,  the  pruning  may  result  in  more  damage 
than  good.  The  orchard  should  be  gone  over  several  times 
during  the  winter  and  a  thorough  search  made  for  any 
sign  of  this  disease. 

Summer  pruning  may  also  be  done  to  advantage,  but 
will  require  even  more  care  about  sterilization  of  the 
wounds  and  tools,  as  the  germs  are  then  in  their  most 
active  and  virulent  condition. 

Plum  Pockets 

This  fungus  bears  a  very  close  relation  to  that  causing 
leaf  curl.  It  attacks  the  fruit  of  the  domestic  plums,  caus- 
ing abnormal  deformities  of  the  fruit,  making  them  really 
become  large  bladder-like  structures,  in  which  the 
stone  is  rarely  developed.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the 
fungus  lives  from  year  to  year  in  the  twigs  of  the  trees, 
so  that  when  once  affected  it  cannot  be  very  easily  gotten 
rid  of.  However,  this  fact  has  not  been  entirely  proven. 


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The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


as  trees  which  are  well  sprayed  with  fungicides,  as  for 
brown  rot  or  black  knot,  are  not  attacked  by  the  pocket 
fungus,  or  if  they  are,  to  only  a  slight  and  insignificant 
extent. 

Strawberries 
Strawberry  Leaf  Spot 

This  disease  appears  upon  the  leaves  of  the  strawberry 
at  about  the  time  of  flowering.  At  first  these  spots  are 
purplish,  later  becoming  greyish  at  the  center,  while  the 
margins  are  red,  and  if  the  leaf  is  much  affected  the  entire 


Characteristic  appearance  of  strawberry  leaf  spot. 

leaf  may  become  reddened.  Control  of  this  disease  can 
be  had  by  spraying  the  plants  before  flowering  with  bor- 
deaux, and  if  the  disease  is  troublesome  later  in  the  season 
it  may  be  advisable  to  cut  off  the  leaves  and  burn  them. 


Principles  of  Pruning  173 


CHAPTER  VII 


Principles  of  Pruning 

Pruning  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  fascinating 
operations  connected  with  horticultural  work.  A  plant  is 
a  plastic,  responding,  changing  organism  which  is  affected 
by  everything  we  do  to  it.  We  cannot  remove  a  single 
branch  without  affecting  the  parts  which  remain.  The 
shortening  of  any  limb  modifies  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
the  character  which  will  be  assumed  by  the  parts  which 
remain.  A  plant  is  capable  of  being  shaped  or  moulded 
by  pruning,  and  he  who  prunes  will  surely  get  results. 
However,  as  to  whether  these  results  are  what  are  to  be 
most  desired  will  have  to  be  learned  by  experience.  One 
must  prune  and  watch  the  results  over  a  series  of  years 
to  learn  just  what  effects  any  particular  treatment  will 
give,  as  the  plant  grows. 

Pruning  cannot  be  learned  from  books.  It  must  be 
learned  by  studying  the  habits  of  plants  and  the  results  of 
pruning.  Books  on  pruning  can,  however,  give  one  ideas 
which  will  enable  one  more  readily  to  learn  how  to  prune 
when  he  conies  to  do  the  work.  The  reading  will  be  help- 
ful only  as  it  guides  the  operations  in  the  field,  and  the 
horticulturist  himself  must  learn  directly  from  the  plants 
themselves. 

It  is  an  easy  matter  to  learn  how  to  prune  where  one 
has  the  plants  to  work  upon,  and  the  time  to  watch  their 
responses  to  the  operations  made  upon  them;  but  it  is  a 
difficult  matter  to  tell  others  how  to  prune.  No  two  plants 


174  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

are  alike.  No  two  branches  are  alike.  No  definite  rules 
can  be  formulated  which  will  apply  to  every  kind  of  plant 
in  every  locality  in  which  it  may  be  growing.  It  is  a  com- 
paratively simple  matter  to  prescribe  formulae  for  the 
spraying  of  plants  to  govern  the  destruction  of  insects  and 
control  the  damages  done  by  fungi.  With  pruning,  how- 
ever, only  systems  can  be  defined  which  are  broad  enough 
to  permit  of  wide  modification  according  to  the  ideal  and 
desire  of  the  pruner  and  the  habit  and  character  of  the 
plant.  This  means  that  the  operation  must  be  done  in  a 
rational,  common  sense  way,  rather  than  by  following  pre- 
scribed rules. 

Since  rules  cannot  be  formulated  for  the  pruning  of 
plants,  there  are  certain  systems  which  can  be  designed 
that  will  enable  the  pruner  to  so  modify  his  plants  that  they 
will  all  conform  to  certain  well  defined  types.  In  grape 
pruning,  for  example,  there  are  certain  well  defined  types 
or  systems  in  use,  such  as  the  spur  system,  the  drooping 
system  and  the  upright  system,  with  several  modifications 
or  combinations  of  these.  In  ornamental  plants  there  are 
natural  forms  and  topiary  forms  which  are  made  by  train- 
ing the  plants  into  formal  or  fantastic  shapes.  In  Euro- 
pean countries  fruit  trees  are  trained  into  formal  shapes, 
and  they  are  a  striking  contrast  to  the  shapes  of  pruning 
that  are  used  in  this  country.  Some  of  these  differences 
are  due  primarily  to  a  matter  of  taste,  while  others  are 
employed  to  suit  a  certain  definite  purpose,  or  to  adapt 
the  plant  to  given  surroundings  or  environment. 

In  the  United  States  there  is  a  great  amount  of  differ- 
ence in  the  style  of  pruning  in  the  Atlantic  coast  states  and 
in  the  Central  and  far  Western  states.  In  the  Atlantic 
coast  states  the  trees  are  given  a  high  head,  while  in  the 
Central  and  far  Western  states  the  head  is  placed  closer 
to  the  ground.  In  the  Eastern  states  the  trees  are  trained 
with  a  more  open  head  than  in  the  Central  or  Western 
states.  These  styles  are  due  mainly  to  an  attempt  to  adapt 
the  tree  to  the  climatic  conditions  in  which  it  is  compelled 
to  grow.  In  the  rainy  atmosphere  of  the  coast  region  it  is 
necessary  to  prune  the  trees  with  a  high  open  head  so  as 


Principles  of  Pruning  175 

to  admit  the  sunlight  and  air,  while  in  the  brilliant  sun- 
light and  clear  dry  air  of  the  West  it  is  advisable  to  have 
the  trees  with  a  more  dense  head  to  prevent  the  tendency 
to  sun-scald. 

While  there  is  more  or  less  of  difference  in  the  style 
or  system  of  pruning  used  in  different  sections  of  the 
country,  there  are  certain  well  defined  principles  which  will 
apply  to  all  plants  in  any  climate,  or  under  any  system  of 
pruning.  Pruning  will  modify  the  vigor  of  plants,  and  in 
some  ways  will  cause  them  to  produce  larger  and  better 
fruits.  It  will  keep  the  plants  within  bounds  and  may 
change  the  habit  from  wood  producing  to  fruit  producing. 
Pruning  allows  the  removal  of  superfluous  parts  and  of  in- 
jured branches  or  roots.  Intelligent  pruning  will  facilitate 
the  operations  of  spraying,  harvesting  and  cultivating  the 
orchard,  and  will  enable  the  operator  to  train  the  plant  in 
the  form  most  fitting  with  his  ideal. 

In  a  plant  growing  normally  there  is  a  balance  in  the 
relation  between  the  root  and  top,  each  supported  and 
nourished  by  the  other;  and  when  either  is  mutilated  the 
relation  is  upset  and  the  balance  disturbed.  Heavy  prun- 
ing of  the  top  in  the  dormant  season  tends  to  increase  the 
amount  of  wood  growth  that  will  be  made  the  following 
season.  In  a  contrary  way,  heavy  pruning  of  the  roots 
will  result  in  reducing  the  amount  of  wood  growth  by 
shutting  off  the  amount  of  crude  food  material  that  is 
gathered  from  the  soil.  Heavy  pruning  of  the  top,  on  the 
other  hand,  tends  to  develop  weak  portions  of  the  plant 
by  allowing  those  parts  to  receive  more  food.  In  heavy 
pruning  it  is  always  advisable  to  remove  the  weakest  parts, 
as  they  are  usually  unable  to  thrive,  even  under  better  con- 
ditions. But  since  heavy  pruning  stimulates  the  produc- 
tion of  wood,  suckers  will  be  formed,  some  of  which  may 
take  the  place  of  the  weak  parts,  and  develop  into  strong 
branches,  restoring  the  plant  to  its  normal  shape  and  habit. 
The  most  rational  system  allows  the  plant  to  take  its  nat- 
ural form,  and  this  is  especially  the  case  with  our  fruit 
producing  trees.  This  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  age  of 
a  plant,  as  when  trees  are  young  they  tend  to  a  more  up- 


176  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

right  habit  than  after  they  reach  maturity  and  have  pro- 
duced several  heavy  crops  of  fruit. 

One  part  of  a  plant  may  live  at  the  expense  of  another 
part.  Very  vigorous  shoots  will  outgrow  surrounding 
branches  because  they  are  better  supplied  with  the  crude 
food  material  collected  by  the  root  and  appropriate  the 
elaborated  food  formed  in  the  leaves  of  their  slower  grow- 
ing neighbors.  In  trees  which  have  just  been  grafted  the 
stickers  which  are  formed  below  the  graft  will  outgrow 
.the  branches  which  arise  in  the  scion,  and  will  outgrow  the 
scion,  and  cause  the  starvation  and  death  of  the  latter. 
The  scion  is,  in  a  way,  a  parasite  upon  the  branch,  and  the 
plant  tends  to  throw  it  off. 

The  tendency  of  plants,  and  young  plants  especially,  is 
to  grow  from  the  uppermost  buds.  By  heading-in  this 
tendency  is  overcome,  and  the  plants  stimulated  into  de- 
veloping lateral  buds.  An  obstruction  just  above  a  branch 
or  bud  tends  to  produce  strong  longitudinal  growth  in  that 
particular  branch,  while  an  obstruction  below  a  bud  stops 
the  downward  flow  of  sap  and  causes  a  thickening  of  the 
parts  above.  This  is  often  resorted  to  in  the  manner  of 
retching  or  girdling  for  the  purpose  of  causing  the  forma- 
tion of  fruit  buds  or  the  enlargement  of  particular  speci- 
mens of  fruit.  But  these  factors  are  associated  with  modes 
of  training  rather  than  pruning  proper. 

When  plants  are  making  an  excessive  amount  of  wood 
growth  they  do  not  make  fruit  buds.  Checking  the  growth 
of  the  top  by  pinching  or  summer  pruning  will  tend  to 
produce  fruitfulness. 

And  \vhile  fruit  bearing  may  be  to  a  large  extent  gov- 
erned by  the  methods  of  pruning,  the  habitual  production 
of  fruit  is  better  regulated  by  small  amounts  of  pruning 
regularly  done,  than  by  heavy  pruning  at  infrequent  in- 
tervals. In  the  case  of  old  trees  which  have  been  neg- 
lected, it  may  take  two  or  three  years  after  severe  pruning 
before  the  balance  between  top  and  roots  can  reach  an 
equilibrium  and  the  tree  become  fruitful.  Light  pruning 
every  year  is  much  better  for  the  trees  than  heavy  pruning 
clone  occasionally. 


Principles  of  Pruning  177 

Pruning  may  be  made  a  means  of  thinning  the  fruit 
by  removing  the  fruit  producing  wood.  In  the  case  of 
plants  which  produce  their  fruit  on  the  long  growths  of  the 
season  before,  as  in  peaches,  quinces,  raspberries,  black- 
berries and  grapes,  many  fruit  producing  buds  will  be  re- 


L,imbs  cut  off  so  as  to  leave  long  stubs  like  this  will 
never  heal.  The  stubs  will  rot  and  finally  result  in  a  hollow 
tree. 

moved  with  each  branch  that  is  pruned  off.  In  the  case 
of  trees  that  tend  to  an  alternation  in  the  years  of  fruitful- 
ness,  as  in  apples  and  pears,  the  tendency  to  alternation 
may  be  somewhat  overcome  through  pruning. 


178  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Summer  Pruning 

All  of  the  factors  of  pruning  which  have  been  men- 
tioned are  governed  largely  by  the  time  of  year  at  which 
the  pruning  is  done.  Winter  pruning  tends  to  produce 
wood,  while  summer  pruning  tends  to  fruitfulness.  Sum- 
mer pruning,  through  the  removal  of  the  leaves,  reduces 
the  working  and  elaborating  surface,  and  a  consequent 
tendency  to  starvation  or  weakening  of  the  plant.  If  this 
summer  pruning  is  done  in  such  a  manner,  and  at  such  a 
time  as  to  stop  the  wood  growth  in  the  plant,  it  will  gen- 
erally promote  the  formation  of  numerous  fruit  buds,  but 
if  done  too  early  in  the  season  the  growth  of  the  tree  will 
be  upset,  and  it  will  make  a  second  and  late  growth  that 
summer.  If  done  too  late,  after  the  tree  has  stopped  mak- 
ing wood  growth  for  that  summer,  it  will  have  much  the 
same  effect  as  winter  pruning.  Summer  pruning  is  more 
often  done  by  pinching  the  tips  from  shoots  that  are  mak- 
ing an  excessive  growth  rather  than  by  cutting  out  any 
large  amount  of  wood. 

The  climate  in  which  a  tree  is  growing  determines  to  a 
large  extent  what  the  manner  of  pruning  shall  be  and  when 
it  need  be  done.  In  the  colder  parts  of  the  country  winter 
pruning,  that  is,  cutting  off  large  limbs  during  mid-winter, 
allows  such  a  large  amount  of  moisture  to  evaporate  from 
the  wood  that  the  bark  may  be  damaged  for  some  distance 
around  each  wound  from  the  effects  of  drying  out. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  pruning  is  best  done  late  in 
the  spring,  so  that  the  wounds  can  be  closed  over  most 
quickly.  In  the  hot,  dry  sections  of  the  country  there  may 
be  a  considerable  amount  of  sun-scalding  following  severe 
pruning,  and  has  given  rise  to  the  statements  in  the  Cen- 
tral Western  states  that  the  trees  should  not  be  pruned. 
This,  however,  needs  to  be  considered  carefully,  for,  while 
it  is  true  that  in  the  states  of  bright  sunshine  and  dry 
air  the  fruit  will  color  up  well  even  in  trees  with  dense 
foliage,  the  trees  will  become  more  or  less  misshapen  un- 
less pruned.  Under  such  conditions  the  pruning  needs  to 
be  followed  just  as  regularly  as  in  the  humid  air  of  the 
coast  states,  but  needs  be  done  less  severely. 


Healing  of  Wounds  179 

In  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  where  the  rainfall  is 
often  less  than  eighteen  inches  annually,  the  trees  have 
barely  enough  moisture  to  maintain  themselves,  and  they 
have  the  habit  of  early  fruiting.  Cherry  trees  often  pro- 
duce a  heavy  crop  at  five  years  from  the  bud.  Throughout 
all  this  region  fruit  trees  have  such  a  tendency  to  overbear 
that  the  system  of  pruning  needs  to  be  heavy  every  win- 
ter. On  the  western  side  of  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
where  the  air  is  thick  with  humidity  most  of  the  year,  the 
trees  make  an  excessive  amount  of  wood  growth  and  grow 
so  late  into  the  fall  that  they  are  many  times  not  suffi- 
ciently matured  and  suffer  more  or  less  from  winter  kill- 
ing. Under  such  conditions  the  pruning  should  be  done 
-so  as  to  prevent  excessive  wood  growth,  such  as  a  gen- 
erous amount  of  summer  pruning.  It  frequently  happens 
in  the  irrigated  sections  that  where  the  trees  are  heavily 
watered,  they  will  make  unusually  long  shoots  each  season 
and  set  few  fruit  buds.  This  trouble  can  oftentimes  be 
corrected  without  resorting  to  special  pruning.  By  simply 
reducing  the  amount  of  water  that  is  supplied  to  the  trees, 
the  vigorous  wood  growth  can  be  stopped  and  the  trees 
made  to  produce  fruit  buds. 

In  fact  the  styles  of  pruning  that  must  be  adopted  by 
the  irrigation  fruit  grower  must  of  necessity  be  governed 
by  local  conditions,  and  will  be  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
different  from  that  in  use  in  the  rainy  districts. 

The  direction  in  which  any  given  branch  will  grow  will 
be  governed  by  the  position  of  the  bud.  In  cutting  off  a 
branch  it  should  be  done  just  over  a  bud  or  branch  that 
is  on  the  side  of  the  limb  and  pointing  in  the  direction 
which  the  new  limb  is  to  take.  With  young  trees  espe- 
cially the  selection  of  a  bud  pointing  in  the  direction  the 
new  limb  is  to  take  will  enable  the  pruner  to  quickly  and 
easily  get  the  tree  into  the  most  desirabl-e  shape. 


Healing  of  Wounds 

The  healing  of  large  wounds  is  influenced  by  the  posi- 
tion of  the  wound  on  the  plant,  the  length  of  the  stump, 


180  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

the  kind  of  plant  and  its  vigor,  the  smoothness  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  wound  and  the.  season  at  which  it  is  made. 
Theoretically  the  best  time  to  make  a  large  wound  is  in 
the  early  part  of  the  growing  season,  as  at  that  time  it  can 
begin  to  heal  over  without  delay.  Such  wounds  should 
be  made  by  making  two  cuts,  the  first  one  being  made 


In  removing  large  branches,  cut  them  close  to  the  main 
limbs,  the  wounds  will  then  heal  quickly. 

a  foot  or  so  from  the  junction  of  the  branch  to  be  re- 
moved with  the  limb  to  which  it  is  attached.  This  will 
remove  the  strain  of  the  heavy  top  and  prevent  the  bark 
from  peeling  down  on  the  limb  that  is  to  remain.  After 
the  weight  of  the  branch  has  been  removed,  cut  off  the 
stump  as  nearly  parallel  with  the  main  limb  as  possible 
and  close  up  to  it,  so  as  to  leave  no  stub  whatever.  The 


Pruning  the  Apple  181 

callus  which  will  close  over  the  wound  cannot  extend  out 
on  a  stub,  but  will  quickly  close  over  a  wound  that  is 
smoothly  cut  and  parallel  with  the  limb. 

On  large  wounds  the  wood  should  be  coated  with  some 
waterproof  covering,  such  as  white  lead  paint,  grafting  wax 
or  tanglefoot.  This  dressing  is  not  for  the  purpose  of  has- 
tening the  healing,  as  it  will  not  do  so,  but  it  will  close  up 
the  pores  of  the  wood  against  the  entry  of  water  and 
fungi  that  cause  the  wood  to  rot. 

Pruning  the  Apple 

The  work  of  pruning  should  start  at  the  time  the  tree 
is  planted  in  the  orchard.  This  is  a  critical  time  in  the 
life  of  the  tree  and  neglect  of  pruning  at  that  time  influ- 
ences the  tree  during  its  remaining  years. 

It  needs  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  a  physiologi- 
cal reason  for  this  early  pruning,  although  it  is  frequently 
neglected  or  overlooked  by  the  planter,  who  may  later 
wonder  why  his  trees  died  or  made  such  a  weak  growth. 
The  roots  serve  the  tree  to  collect  water  and  mineral  ele- 
ments from  the  soil,  which  is  carried  through  the  sap  wood 
to  the  leaves,  and  there  elaborated  and  made  over  into  the 
form  in  which  it  can  be  used  by  the  tree  in  extending  its 
branches  and  developing  its  fruit. 

When  the  tree  is  dug  from  the  nursery  most  of  its  root 
system  is  left  in  the  soil,  and  unless  the  top  is  reduced  in 
proportion  it  will  constitute  too  great  a  drain  upon  the 
small  root  system.  This  results  in  weakening  the  tree, 
frequently  extending  over  a  period  of  three  years  or  more. 
It  may  even  result  in  the  death  of  the  tree  through  its 
having  used  up  all  of  the  food  material  that  is  stored  in  the 
cells  of  its  body  before  the  roots  can  draw  sufficient  from 
the  soil  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  developing  branches. 

In  preparing  new  trees  for  planting,  all  of  the  bruised 
and  broken  roots  need  to  be  cut  off  smoothly  so  as  to  leave 
no  ragged  ends.  All  of  the  main  roots  should  be  shortened 
in  to  six  inches  or  1-ess,  with  a  proportionate  reduction  of 
the  top. 


182  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

In  the  Western  states  yearling  trees  are  mostly  used 
for  planting  and  when  such  is  the  case  the  top  consists 
of  nothing  more  than  a  single  whip.  This  is  cut  off  to 
within  twelve  to  twenty  inches  of  the  ground,  depending 
on  how  tall  it  was  before  pruning.  In  the  case  of  two- 
year-old  trees,  there  will  have  been  formed  three  or  more 
side  branches,  each  of  which  will  be  a  foot  or  more  long, 
and  all  of  which  need  to  be  shortened  in  about  one-half  at 
the  time  the  tree  is  planted. 

The  shape  of  the  future  tree  is  determined  to  some  ex- 
tent by  the  shape  given  to  the  tree  during  its  first  year, 
and  more  especially  the  height  of  the  head  above  the 
ground.  In  the  Western  states  the  orchardists  prefer  a 
tree  with  a  low  head,  while  in  the  East  the  trees  are  gen- 
erally allowed  to  make  a  high  head.  Where  one-year-old 
trees  are  used  there  will  be  no  side  branches  at  the  time 
the  tree  is  set,  and  all  of  its  branches  will  have  to  form 
during  the  first  summer  in  the  premanent  plantation.  This 
gives  the  orchard  man  an  opportunity  to  place  the  head 
just  where  it  is  desired,  but  when  the  head  has  been  formed 
in  the  nursery  it  frequently  happens  that  it  is  far  too  high 
above  the  ground. 

In  selecting  the  branches  to  form  the  permanent  head, 
from  three  to  five  should  be  taken  that  are  well  distributed 
around  the  stem  of  the  tree,  and  at  some  distance  apart 
up  and  down  the  trunk.  Where  the  branches  all  come  out 
at  about  the  same  height  it  will  result  in  a  head  that  is 
easily  split  when  the  tree  is  loaded  with  fruit,  and  unless 
the  branches  are  well  distributed  around  the  tree  it  will 
make  the  tree  more  or  less  one-sided. 

In  removing  the  limbs  of  a  young  tree  make  the  cuts 
slanting  and  just  above  a  bud,  leaving  a  stub  not  more 
than  an  eighth  or  quarter  of  an  inch  long.  A  stub 
of  this  length  will  not  be  so  long  as  to  decay  before 
it  can  be  healed  over,  and  it  is  not  so  close  to  the 
bud  as  to  cause  injury  through  drying  out.  Heavy  winter 
pruning  should  be  the  practice  with  apple  trees  during  the 
first  four  or  five  years  in  order  to  stimulate  them  into 
making  a  strong  growth  and  building  up  a  large  frame- 


The  Second  Year  183 

work  for  the  future  fruiting  surface.  In  those  regions 
where  excessive  wood  growth  is  a  normal  or  usual  condi- 
tion the  winter  pruning  will  not  need  to  be  as  heavy  as 
where  the  rainfall  is  light  and  trees  do  not  make  as  vig- 
orous growth  without  stimulation. 

When  planting  one-year-old  apple  trees  there  is  little 
likelihood  of  getting  trees  that  are  forked,  but  in  older  stock 
some  of  the  trees  will  be  forked,  with  the  two  leaders  of 
nearly  the  same  size.  If  trees  of  that  sort  are  planted  they 
will  usually  result  in  one  of  the  limbs  being  split  off 
when  it  is  loaded  with  fruit.  In  planting  forked  trees  the 
possibility  of  future  breaking  down  of  one  side  can  be  en- 
tirely done  away  with  by  cutting  back  one  of  the  branches 
of  the  fork  to  a  strong  bud  near  the  base,  or  by  cutting 
the  limb  out  entirely.  In  pruning  off  the  other  limbs,  cut 
them  back  to  a  bud  that  points  in  the  direction  it  is  desired 
the  new  limb  shall  take. 

The  Second  Year 

During  the  first  year  in  the  orchard  there  is  little  prun- 
ing necessary  aside  from  the  shortening  in  of  the  tree  at 
the  time  it  is  planted,  but  beginning  with  the  second  year 
some  definite  system  needs  to  be  adopted  and  followed 
out.  In  this  respect  there  are  two  general  systems  or 
shapes  for  the  commercial  apple  trees,  one  of  them  being 
the  pyramidal  and  the  other  vase.  The  pyramidal  tree 
means  one  in  which  the  central  branch  or  branches  have 
not  been  removed,  and  which  of  necessity  makes  a  tree 
that  soon  becomes  very  tail,  and  unless  carefully  tended 
and  pruned  in  later  years  will  carry  the  greatest  portion 
of  its  crop  high  above  the  ground.  To  shape  trees  after 
this  fashion,  the  main  central  branch  of  the  young  tree 
should  be  allowed  to  grow;  the  only  pruning  that  should 
ever  be  given  it  being  just  enough  to  shorten  it  somewhat 
each  year,  and  thin  cut  the  side  branches  upon  it  so  as  to 
keep  them  well  distributed.  • 

The  vase  shaped  tree  seems  to  be  of  Western  origin, 
and  requires  a  low  head.  This  shape  may  be  better  called 


184 


The  Fru it-Growers  Guide-Book 


the  "open  center''  tree,  as  it  means  a  tree  in  which  the 
central  branches  have  been  removed  and  the  lateral 
branches  so  trained  as  to  leave  the  center  of  the  tree  open 
to  sunlight  and  air.  It  is  a  style  of  training  that  produces 
a  larger  percentage  of  highly  colored  fruit  than  is  possible 
with  pyramidal  trees  in  the  hands  of  the  average  man. 


Well  arranged  branches  in  the  head  of  an  open-top  apple 
tree.  Trunk  protected  from  rabbits  by  a  wooden  veneer 
wrapper. 


This  vase  shape  must  be  started  at  the  begining  of  the 
second  year  in  the  orchard  by  cutting  out  the  central  leader 
in  the  little  trees,  allowing  nothing  to  remain  but  from 


Pruning  the  Peach  185 

three  to  five  side  branches  that  are  distributed  some  inches 
apart  up  and  down  the  stem  of  the  tree.  Unless  these 
branches  are  distributed  several  inches  apart  they  are  lia- 
ble to  make  a  fork  that  will  be  easily  split,  and  as  this  style 
of  pruning  makes  trees  that  are  more  or  less  weak  in  the 
fork,  all  possible  care  needs  to  be  observed  in  getting  the 
crown  as  strong  as  possible. 

Subsequent  pruning  will  be  for  the  purpose  of  maintain- 
ing the  shape  of  the  tree,  thinning  the  fruiting  wood,  pro- 
moting wood  growth,  promoting  fruitfulness,  removing 
unnecessary  or  injured  parts  and  facilitating  harvesting 
and  spraying. 

No  formal  rules  can  be  laid  down  as  to  how  an  apple 
tree  should  be  pruned  after  it  has  passed  its  second  year 
in  the  orchard,  as  it  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon  the 
variety,  the  locality,  the  age  and  climate.  It  needs  to  be 
borne  in  mind,  however,  that  summer  pruning  tends  to  fruit- 
fulness,  while  winter  pruning  tends  to  the  production  of 
wood  growth,  and  in  the  Western  states  where  trees  have 
the  tendency  to  overbear,  winter  pruning  is  by  far  more  im- 
portant than  summer  pruning. 

The  tops  of  the  trees  need  to  be  pruned  every  year. 
If  it  is  not  done  they  soon  become  a  mass  of  tangled 
branches,  many  of  which  are  long  and  slender,  and  when 
heavily  laden  with  fruit  are  easily  broken  down.  When 
cutting  off  a  branch  or  twig,  make  the  cut  close  to  a 
lateral  branch,  so  as  to  not  leave  a  stub.  The  sap  in 
passing  up  the  branch  will  be  directed  into  the  lateral,  and 
in  its  downward  course  it  will  close  over  the  wound  made 
close  to  a  lateral  branch,  whereas  if  a  stub  is  left  the  heal- 
ing callus  cannot  close  over  it. 

Pruning  the  Peach 

The  peach  is  a  fruit  that  responds  very  quickly  to  the 
amount  of  pruning  done  upon  the  trees,  and  in  a  commer- 
cial orchard  pruning  is  one  of  the  most  important  opera- 
tions. Thorough  pruning  tends  toward  regular  fruitfulness. 
It  influences  the  size  of  the  crop,  and  the  size  of  the  fruit, 


186 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


as  well  as  the  period  of  starting  into  growth  in  the  spring, 
the  color  of  the  fruit,  time  of  ripening  and  longevity  of 
the  tree. 

Unlike  the  apple,  the  peach  produces  its  fruit  upon 
wood  produced  during  the  preceding  summer,  and  since 
the  tendency  is  to  excessive  wood  growth,  unless  the  trees 
are  regularly  pruned,  they  soon  become  long  branched 
and  high  topped,  and  make  it  difficult  to  harvest  the  fruit. 


The  foundation  of  a  good  framework  in  a  peach  tree  lays 
entirely  in  the  proper  arrangement  of  the  limbs  during  the 
first  year  in  the  orchard.  This  tree  has  its  limbs  well  ar- 
ranged. 


One-year-old  trees  direct  from  the  nursery  are  most 
desired  for  orchard  planting  and  will  consist  of  a  single 
long  straight  whip  with  many  side  branches.  These  side 
branches  should  be  cut  back  so  as  to  leave  but  one  bud 
at  their  base,  and  the  main  stem  cut  off,  leaving  from  three 
to  five  side  branches.  These  should  be  so  selected  that  they 


Pruning  the  Peach 


187 


are  well  distributed  around  the  tree.  This  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  a  strong  fork  at  the  head.  It  is  always 
desirable  to  get  these  main  limbs  to  come  out  as  near 
to  the  surface  of  the  soil-  as  possible,  at  most  not  over  a 


Three   branches   at   the   head,     each    dividing 
making  a  wide  spreading  tree  of  ideal  shape. 


into    two, 


foot  from  the  soil  for  the  lowest  limb.  This  will  give  the 
tree  a  low  head  and  facilitate  all  of  the  operations  in  con- 
nection with  the  subsequent  orchard. 

The  tendency  of  the  peach  is  to  make  a  large  amount 
of  wood  growth  each  year,  and  it  is  nothing  uncommon  to 


188 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


see  trees  that  have  made  branches  six  and  seve.n  feet  long 
in  a  single  summer.  Such  limbs  generally  continue  grow- 
ing until  so  late  in  the  summer  that  they  are  not  properly 


The  average  type  of  round  top  found  in  the  peach  trees 
of  the  Middle  West.     The  head  is  too  high  above  the  ground. 


matured  by  autumn  and  go  into  winter  in  a  soft  and  sappy 
condition  and  are  easily  winter  injured.     Excessive  wood 


Pruning  the  Peach  189 

growth  is  not  desired,  but  a  good  vigorous  amount  is  to 
be  encouraged  at  all  times. 

The  style  of  pruning  that  is  most  approved  of  for 
peaches  is  that  which  will  allow  of  an  open  head.  This 
will  permit  the  sunlight  to  penetrate  down  into  the  center 
of  the  head  and  cause  the  branches  to  set  more  fruit  buds 
and  to  reduce  the  amount  of  rot  in  the  fruit.  Trees  so 
pruned  will  usually  make  a  large  number  of  small  twigs 
on  the  bases  of  the  larger  branches  and  increase  the  num- 
ber of  buds  on  the  tree.  These  small  branches  are  usually 
the  most  hardy,  and  carry  through  the  winter  in  better 
shape. 

Pruning  in  peaches  is  not  done  as  a  rule  until  rather 
late  in  winter  or  early  in  spring,  for  the  reason  that  it  is 
best  to  wait  until  it  can  be  determined  with  some  cer- 
tainty whether  there,  will  be  a  crop  of  fruit  that  season  or 
not.  If  the  fruit  should  have  all  been  killed  by  a  severe 
winter  or  a  late  freeze,  then  the  pruning  will  have  to  be 
done  differently  than  if  there  is  good  prospects  for  a  full 
crop.  Where  the  fruit  has  not  been  damaged  by  the  cold 
weather,  then  the  amount  of  wood  to  remove  will  be  only 
about  half  of  the  longest  branches,  cutting  in  all  cases  so 
as  to  maintain  the  shape  of  the  tree  and  to  keep  the  center 
open.  Any  large  limbs  that  have  a  tendency  to  crowd  up 
the  center  of  the  tree  should  be  either  cut  out  entirely  or 
so  shortened  back  that  they  will  not  shut  out  the  sunlight 
from  the  middle. 

When  the  fruit  has  all  been  killed  by  the  severity  of  the 
weather,  advantage  can  be  taken  of  the  circumstance  to 
cut  back  more  or  less  severely  and  renew  the  top  of  the 
tree.  This  will  have  the  advantage  of  lowering  the  top  and 
reshaping  the  tree.  It  is  a  method  that  has  its  limitations, 
but  is  very  useful  where  the  fruit  buds  have  all  been  killed. 

In  cases  where  the  injury  from  the  winter  has  damaged 
the  wood  of  the  tree  to  such  an  extent  that  it  has  a  brown 
color,  it  is  advisable  to  head-back  the  tree,  cutting  often- 
times into  wood  that  may  be  as  much  as  four  years  old. 
This  will  so  reduce  the  size  of  the  top  that  the  roots  can 


190 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


force  out  a  large  amount  of  new  wood,  and  trees  so  treated 
will  make  a  very  vigorous  growth  during  the  summer  fol- 
lowing, although  they  may  be  somewhat  late  in  start- 
ing. On  such  wood  the  growing  period  will  usually 
be  continued  late  into  the  fall,  and  the  wood  will 
not  always  be  well  matured  by  the  time  cold  weather  ar- 
rives, and  under  such  conditions  the  buds  will  not  be  as 
hardy  as  the  buds  on  slower  growing  and  well  matured 


The  head  of  this  tree  is  too  high  above  the  ground.  It  is 
pruned  so  as  to  open  it,  and  let  the  sunlight  down  into  the 
center. 


trees.  But  these  buds  have  an  advantage  in  that  they  are 
slower  in  starting  into  growth  in  the  spring  and  often- 
times will  escape  late  frosts  that  might  otherwise  damage 
the  fruit.  The  hardiest  buds  are  always  at  the  base  of  the 
new  wood,  and  especially  of  the  well  matured,  plump  wood 
on  the  slower  growing  branches. 

Aside  from  determining  the  shape  of  the  tree  pruning  has 


Pruning  the  Cherry 


191 


another  influence  in  that  it  results  in  a  thinning  of  the  fruit 
by  removing  some  of  the  fruit  buds.  The  peach  always  sets 
many  times  more  buds  than  it  can  possibly  mature  into 
fruit,  and  there  is  a  distinct  necessity  for  the  removal  of 
some  of  the  fruit  by  thinning.  When  this  thinning  can  be 
done  through  the  removal  of  the  wood  it  is  a  saving  of  labor, 
and  results  in  fruit  of  a  larger  size,  better  shape  and  higher 
color. 


Peach  tree  with  open  top.  Head  starts  near  the  ground, 
enabling  pickers  to  reach  most  of  the  fruit  without  the  use 
of  ladders. 


Pruning  the  Cherry 

With  cherry  trees,  both  sweet  and  sour,  most  of 
the  pruning  the  trees  will  need  must  be  done  during  the 
first  three  or  four  years.  This  is  necessary  for  the  pur- 
pose of  providing  a  large  framework  to  furnish  the  fruiting 
wood  in  future  years.  In  both  kinds  of  cherries  this  frame- 
work needs  to  be  made  as  broad  as  possible.  Sweet  cher- 
ries are  inclined  to  be  more  upright  in  habit  than  sour  va- 


192  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

rieties,  and  will  need  to  be  opened  out  more  by  cutting  to 
buds  on  the  outer  sides  of  the  limbs.  With  sour  kinds  the 
trees  will  need  little  pruning  after  the  third  or  fourth  year. 
All  that  may  be  needed  will  be  to  cut  out  branches  which 
cross  or  which  are  dead. 

With  sweet  cherries  there  is  a  tendency  to  an  excessive 
amount  of  wood  growth,  and  it  is  not  unusual  for  such 
kinds  of  trees  to  produce  five  feet  of  new  wood  in  a  sea- 
son. This  is  especially  true  of  young  trees.  For  planting 
in  the  orchard  one-year-old  trees  are  most  desirable,  and 
they  are  cut  off  at  about  24  to  36  inches  of  the  ground.  A 
number  of  side  branches  will  be  sent  out,  and  only  four  or 
five  of  these  should  be  retained,  providing  that  many  can 
be  had  properly  distributed  around  the  stem  and  widely 
separated  from  each  other.-  Unless  the  branches  forming 
the  head  of  a  cherry  tree  are  well  distributed  it  will  result 
in  a  tree  that  is  subject  to  gummosis.  Sweet  cherries  are 
especially  subject  to  this  trouble  and  every  care  needs  to 
be  exercised  to  prevent  it.  Where  the  branches  of  the 
head  come  out  too  close  together  cracking  and  splitting 
will  result,  not  only  making  them  subject  to  gummosis,  but 
possibly  causing  them  to  break  off. 

In  case  the  sweet  cherries  are  injured  by  the  winter 
cold,  let  them  stand  unpruned  until  about  time  the  buds 
start,  then  prune  in  the  same  manner  as  for  peach  trees 
which  have  been  frozen. 

The  Bing  cherry  is  especially  liable  to  grow  late  in  the 
summer  and  go  into  winter  carrying  its  leaves,  and  pos- 
sibly not  having  formed  its  terminal  bud  before  frost.  The 
cambium  layer  will  be  so  soft  and  tender  that  it  will  be 
completely  killed,  yet  the  tree  will  start  into  growth  only 
"to  die  early  in  the  summer.  Do  not  permit  the  trees  to 
grow  late,  but  harden  them  up  by  a  judicious  amount  of 
summer  pruning,  so  that  they  will  shed  their  leaves  early. 
In  the  irrigated  sections  late  growth  is  often  caused  by 
irrigating  too  late  in  the  summer.  Under  irrigation  it  is 
quite  easy  to  regulate  the  amount  of  wood  that  will  be  pro- 
duced on  trees  by  regulating  the  supply  of  water.  Late 
applications  will  make  the  trees  grow  late,  but  by  shutting 


Pruning  the  Pear  193 

it   off  early  the   trees   will   stop   growing  and   ripen   their 
wood  before  the  arrival  of  cold  weather. 


Pruning  the  Apricot 

In  the  East  the  apricot  is  headed  at  a  couple  or  three 
feet  from  the  ground,  while  in  the  West  the  head  is  placed 
a  little  lower.  One  or  two-year-old  trees  are  the  best  for 
planting.  Where  yearling  trees  are  used  they  should  be  cut 
off  at  about  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground.  This  will 
start  out  several  good  strong  branches.  The  lowest  one  to 
be  retained  should  be  about  a  foot  from  the  ground,  and 
three  or  four  others  selected  which  are  well  arranged  around 
the  stem,  and  at  a  distance  of  a  few  inches  apart.  This  ar- 
rangement will  make  a  strong  head,  and  one  which  is  not 
as  apt  to  be  broken  down  under  a  load  of  fruit  as  if  the 
branches  came  out  close  together.  It  may  be  necessary 
to  go  over  the  trees  a  few  times  during  the  first  summer 
and  pinch  out  those  shoots  which  are  not  desired  so  as  to 
throw  the  strength  of  the  plant  into  those  branches  that 
are  to  form  the  permanent  framework  of  the  tree. 

Apricots  come  into  bearing  early,  and  by  the  third  year 
in  most  places  they  will  produce  a  crop.  All  of  the  pruning 
that  will  be  needed  after  the  trees  come  into  bearing  will 
be  just  enough  to  keep  the  tree  in  shape  and  growing 
thriftily. 

Pruning  the  Pear 

The  habit  of  the  pear  tree  is  usually  more  upright  and 
compact  than  with  most  varieties  of  apples.  On  account 
of  this  habit  it  needs  to  be  pruned  in  such  manner  as 
to  open  the  head  and  make  it  spread  out.  This  can  be 
done  by  starting  the  work  early  in  the  life  of  the  tree,  and 
prune  in  such  way  as  to  direct  the  new  branch  outward 
rather  than  upward.  Select  a  bud  that  points  in  the  desired 
direction  and  cut  to  it. 

One  or  two-year-old  pear  trees  are  most  desired  for 
planting  and  they  will  have  much  the  same  appearance 

(7) 


194  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

and  shape  as  have  apples  of  the  same  age.  The  pruning 
at  planting  time  is  done  in  the  same  way  as  for  apples. 
Start  the  head  low  and  if  the  trees  make  a  very  strong 
growth  during  the  first  summer  cut  back  some  of  the  limbs 
that  are  the  strongest,  cutting  to  an  outer  bud  always,  so 
as  to  open  out  the  head.  The  fruiting  habit  of  the  pear 
is  quite  the  same  as  with  apples  and  just  here  precau- 
tion needs  to  be  taken  in  selecting  the  fruiting  wood.  The 
pear  is  very  subject  to  attacks  of  the  destructive  bacillus 
causing  "fire  blight"  and  as  this  disease  enters  the  trees 
most  readily  through  the  blossoms  great  precautions  are 
needed  to  keep  the  fruit  spurs  clipped  off  the  main 
branches. 

These  spurs  will  begin  to  form  at  from  three  to  five 
years  in  most  varieties  of  pears.  During  the  first  four 
or  five  years  prune  hard  so  as  to  encourage  wood  growth, 
but  after  the  fifth  year  in  the  Central  and  Western  states, 
and  the  seventh  and  eighth  year  in  the  East,  where  pears 
do  not  come  into  bearing  so  early,  all  of  the  winter  prun- 
ing should  be  reduced  or  stopped,  and  more  summer  prun- 
ing done.  This  is  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  making  the 
pear  tree  produce  a  hard  wood  which  is  resistant  to  fire 
blight.  The  best  time  to  do  this  summer  pruning  is  in 
August  in  the  middle  and  northern  sections  of  the  country 
and  later  in  the  South,  where  late  growth  is  made.  By 
pruning  late  in  the  summer  the  trees  will  have  made  a 
good  amount  of  wood,  but  the  shock  of  pruning  will  take 
some  weeks  to  overcome,  and  by  that  time  the  climatic 
conditions  are  such  as  normally  stop  wood  formation 
in  the  tree.  If  the  summer  pruning  is  done  too  early  the 
trees  may  be  able  to  start  into  growth  a  second  time  and 
continue  growing  so  late  as  to  go  into  the  winter  with 
soft  wood  that  is  easily  injured  by  the  cold. 


Pruning  Brambles 

Brambles  are  blackberries,  raspberries  and  dewberries, 
and  these  constitute  a  group  of  plants  that  produce  their 
fruit  on  the  wood  that  grew  the  preceding  year,  and  which 


Pruning  Brambles  195 

after  having  produced  one  crop  of  fruit  dies.  The  pruning 
of  these  fruits  consists  in  removing  the  old  canes  after 
they  have  ripened  their  crop  and  in  heading  back  the 
young  canes  during  the  early  growing  period  so  as  to  make 
them  branch  out  and  increase  their  fruiting  surface.  The 
winter  pruning  consists  in  shortening  in  the  laterals  that 
were  formed  after  the  canes  were  pinched  back  during  the 
summer. 

With  blackberries  in  all  of  the  country  east  of  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains  to  the  Atlantic  Coast,  the  canes  are 
headed  back  by  pinching  out  a  couple  of  inches  of  the 
tips  after  reaching  a  height  of  a  couple  of  feet.  This  will 
make  the  canes  throw  out  strong  lateral  branches  that 
become  the  fruiting  wood  for  the  next  year.  In  the  winter 
these  side  branches  are  to  be  shortened  in,  and  the  amount 
of  cutting  that  may  be  necessary  will  vary  with  the  va- 
riety. Some  kinds  like  Wilson  produce  their  fruit  mostly 
close  to  the  cane,  and  consequently  the  branches  can  be 
shortened  in  quite  close,  but  with  kinds  like  the  Snyder  and 
Early  Harvest,  the  fruiting  portion  is  near  the  ends  of  the 
branches,  and  consequently  not  so  much  may  be  removed. 
It  is  always  well  to  remove  plenty  of  the  wood  in  order  to 
thin  the  fruit. 

Blackberry  bushes  that  are  shaped  in  this  manner -and 
where  the  canes  were  pinched  early,  will  be  strong  enough 
to  stand  alone,  but  in  case  of  tall  growing  varieties  like 
the  Snyder  it  may  be  best  to  stretch  a  wire  along  both 
sides  of  the  row  to  keep  the  canes  from  bending  over  when 
loaded  with  fruit. 

Many  experienced  growers  of  blackberries  prefer  to 
train  the  canes  on  a  trellis  of  some  sort.  In  New  York 
state,  and  some  parts  of  the  East,  a  two-wire  trellis  is  ar- 
ranged with  the  wires  a  couple  of  feet  apart,  and  fastened 
to  a  strong  post  at  the  ends  of  the  rows.  The  young  canes 
are  pinched  just  a  little  above  the  upper  wire  and  tied  to 
that  wire  until  after  the  fruit  has  ripened.  This  will 
keep  them  out  of  the  way  of  the  fruit-producing  canes, 
which  are  tied  to  the  lower  wire. 

The  canes  may  remain  tied  to  the  wires  all  winter,  or 


196  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

if  winter  killing  is  liable  to  happen,  they  may  be  laid  down 
and  covered.  When  they  are  lifted  up  they  are  tied 
to  the  lower  wires  and  the  upper  wire  left  for  the  new 
canes  as  they  appear.  Where  only  a  few  hills  are  grown, 
as  for  home  use,  it  is  always  best  to  tie  them  to  single 
stakes.  The  only  objection  to  this  proceeding  is  that  it 
is  liable  to  bunch  the  canes  too  much  and  cause  more  or 
less  loss  from  spotting  of  the  leaves.  Not  more  than  three 
canes  should  be  allowed  in  a  hill,  where  tied  to  stakes,  and 
only  five  or  six  in  a  hill  where  arranged  on  a  trellis. 

In  the  Northwest  a  two-wire  trellis  is  used  for  black- 
berries, but  the  wires  are  placed  at  the  same  level,  at- 
tached to  a  strong  cross  bar  firmly  nailed  to  the  posts.  If 
the  rows  are  long,  posts  are  set  at  intervals  of  twenty-five 
feet  in  the  row.  A  double  wire  is  run  down  each  side  of 
the  cross  arms,  and  the  fruit  producing  canes  are  placed 
between  these  wires  before  growth  begins  in  the  spring. 
The  canes  are  thus  held  firmly  from  bending  over  under 
their  weight  of  fruit,  and  are  out  where  the  fruit  can  be 
most  easily  picked.  The  space  between  the  wires  is  open 
and  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  new  canes.  As  soon  as 
the  fruit  is  harvested  the  canes  which  have  produced  a 
crop  of  fruit  are  cut  out,  and  any  new  canes  over  five  in 
each  hill.  The  most  experienced  growers  prefer  to  have 
only  five  canes  in  a  hill,  and  all  others  are  removed  as  fast 
as  they  appear  after  the  fruit  is  harvested. 

The  Evergreen  and  Loganberry  need  to  be  grown  on 
trellis,  as  they  make  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  of  cane 
a  season,  and  it  is  out  of  the  question  to  handle  them 
on  the  ground.  When  on  trellises,  the  wires  are  ar- 
ranged at  levels  of  two  and  four  feet,  with  the  fruit  bear- 
ing canes  on  the  upper  wires  and  the  young  canes  on  the 
lower.  This  keeps  the  canes  where  they  can  be  reached, 
and  as  these  kinds  of  berries  have  such  villainous  thorns, 
they  must  be  trained  so  that  they  can  be  handled  with  the 
least  amount  of  punishment  from  the  thorns.  As  soon  as 
the  fruiting  is  over,  the  old  canes  are  cut  away  and  the 
young  canes  are  placed  on  the  upper  trellis  where  they  will 
receive  the  full  sunlight  and  air. 


Pruning  Brambles 


197 


Black  raspberries,  or  back-caps  as  they  are  sometimes 
called,  are  pruned  quite  like  the  blackberry.  The  new 
canes  are  pinched  at  a  couple  of  feet  from  the  ground  to 
make  them  branch  out,  and  these  laterals  are  cut  back 
about  half  in  late  winter  or  before  growth  begins  in  the 


Dewberry  canes   trained  to   a  post, 
canes  in  a  hill. 


From  three  to  five 


198  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

spring.  Black-caps  should  be  tied  up  to  a  trellis  where  the 
variety  grows  very  vigorously  and  is  liable  to  fall  down 
under  a  load  of  fruit. 

Red  raspberries  are  pruned  and  trained  in  the  same 
manner  as  black  raspberries,  except  that  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  pinch  the  canes  in  the  summer. 

Dewberries  are  sometimes  trained  on  stakes  or  trel- 
lises, as  they  make  a  great  amount  of  wood  and  very  long 
canes.  A  common  method  of  handling  dewberries  is  to 
grow  them  in  hills  fifteen  feet  apart.  Let  the  canes  re- 
main on  the  ground  without  a  trellis.  Just  as  soon  as  the 
crop  has  all  been  harvested  mow  all  of  the  canes  off  close 
to  the  ground,  gather  them  up  and  haul  out  of  the  field. 
New  ones  will  quickly  appear  and  make  a  good  growth 
during  the  remainder  of  the  summer  and  be  in  good  shape 
to  produce  a  crop  of  fruit  the  next  spring.  This  is  rather 
vigorous  treatment  but  it  serves  as  a  quick  and  easy  means 
of  getting  rid  of  the  tangle  of  old  canes,  which,  unless  re- 
moved will  so  choke  up  the  hills  in  a  few  years  that  the 
plants  are  worthless.  Growers  who  practice  this  method 
of  pruning  feel  that  the  plantation  will  be  short  lived  either 
way,  and  that  it  is  an  advantage  to  have  the  fields  clean 
and  free  from  dead  wood  rather  than  choked  up  with 
weeds  and  old  canes. 


Profits  in  Fruit  Growing  199 


CHAPTER  VIII 


Profits  in  Fruit  Growing 

There  is  such  a  gradually  increasing  amount  of  interest 
in  the  matter  of  fruit  growing  that  thousands  of  persons 
are  each  year  leaving  their  jobs  in  the  offices,  school 
rooms,  shops  and  stores  to  undertake  fruit  growing  for 
a  livelihood.  Some  of  them  succeed  in  making  a  living, 
some  make  a  failure  and  return  to  their  former  occupa- 
tions, while  others  become  wealthy.  Many  extravagant 
statements  have  been  made  by  enthusiastic  promoters  of 
some  certain  sections  concerning  the  unbelievable  profits 
that  it  is  possible  to  make  from  given  areas  of  their  land. 
In  many  instances  these  profits  are  purely  visionary,  while 
in  many  others  they  are. entirely  reliable. 

From  reliable  data  which  has  been  collected  in  several 
states,  it  is  apparent  that  sums  ranging  from  $1,000  to 
$3,000  per  year  can  be  obtained  from  an  acre  of  land  under 
some  conditions.  Usually  these  conditions  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  amateur,  and  have  been  obtained  by  expert 
horticulturists,  who  have  been  several  years  in  developing 
their  product  and  their  market.  But  it  is  also  possible  in 
many  cases  for  inexperienced  persons  to  make  excellent 
incomes  from  fruit  plantations,  and  it  does  not  matter 
what  state  or  section  of  the  country  one  goes  to,  splendid 
returns  can  be  obtained.  There  is  this  one  fact  to  be 
learned  from  the  data  collected,  and  that  is  that  some  sec- 
tions of  the  country  are  more  favorable  for  the  inexperi- 
enced to  obtain  large  returns.  These  sections  are  gener- 
ally in  those  regions  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  fer- 


Profits  in  Fruit  Growing  201 

tile,  virgin  soil,  where  the  climate  is  mild  and  where  the 
fruit  or  vegetable  industry  is  more  or  less  well  developed. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  the  far  Western  and  Southern 
states.  It  seems  that  where  a  number  of  persons  in  one 
locality  are  engaged  in  the  same  line  of  business  there  is 
a  stronger  spirit  of  optimism  and  mutual  assistance,  which 
work  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  grower. 

The  following  are  representative  samples  of  the  letters 
which  have  come  to  the  attention  of  the  writer  bearing  on 
the  matter  of  profits  that  are  obtained  in  fruit  growing. 

Here  is  one  from  Bedford  County,  Virginia:  "On  32 
apple  trees  which  are  about  60  years  old,  and  occupying 
about  one  acre,  the  crop  in  1909  sold  for  an  even  $1,000. 
Its  yield  in  some  seasons  past  has  brought  a  return  of 
$1,500.  The  land  near  this  orchard  is  valued  at  from  $20 
to  $60  per  acre.  Near  this  orchard  is  another  one  which 
produced  240  barrels  on  one  acre,  and  sold  for  $2  per  bar- 
rel, or  a  valuation  of  16  per  cent  on  a  valuation  of  $3,000 
per  acre." 

The  profits  from  growing  fruit  come  not  alone  from 
the  harvest  of  fruit  each  year,  but  also  from  the  increased 
value  of  land,  which  brings  good  returns.  A  Virginian 
says:  "When  I  came  into  possession  of  my  property  it 
sold  for  $7,500  and  was  not  readily,  saleable  at.  that  figure. 
Through  the  planting  of  orchards  I  have  been  able  to  sell 
off  land  in  this  tract  to  the  amount  of  between  $25,000  and 
$30,000  and  retain  a  property  worth  two  or  three  times- 
the  original  value." 

Apples  are  the  leading  fruit  crop  in  some  sections  of 
the  far  West  and  have  been  known  to  bring  fabulous  re- 
turns in  some  instances,  but  not  every  one  can  get  such 
enormous  profits.  The  average  profits  will  run  like  this 
grower  in  the  Yakima  Valley  of  Washington  got.  He  says 
that  his  three  and  one-half  acres  of  apples  have,  in  five 
years,  brought  a  gross  return  of  $20,000.  In  Parker  Bot- 
toms of  this  same  valley  a  pear  grower  made  a  net  profit 
of  $26,616  from  618  pear  trees  planted  in  1894.  This  is  an 
average  yearly  net  profit  of  over  $1,100  per  acre. 


202  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Growers  near  Wenatchee,  Washington,  have  made  good 
profits  on  their  orchards,  as  is  shown  by  the  following: 
Four  acres  of  six-year-old  trees  produced  a  crop  in  1907 
which  sold  for  $4,451,  and  in  the  next  year  the  crop  on 
these  same  trees  sold  for  $4,800,  and  in  1909,  $5,400.  A 
certain  grower  came  to  that  valley  in  1898  and  paid  $625 
for  five  acres  of  raw  land.  In  1909  he  sold  his  apple  crop 
from  this  five  acres  for  $3,250  and  has  refused  $15,000  for 
his  land.  In  this  same  valley,  on  a  small  orchard  of 
peaches  the  grower  got  a  return  of  $2,596  per  acre  for  the 


Tomatoes  grown  as  a  catch  crop  between  the  tree  rows 
while  the  orchard  is  young. 

fruit  of  one  year.  Fifty-four  D'Anjou  pear  trees  on  two- 
thirds  of  an  acre  produced  952  boxes  of  pears  that  sold  in 
the  New  York  market  for  a  price  that  would  net  the  owner 
at  the  rate  of  $3,806  per  acre.  Another  grower  got  $3,250 
from  five  acres  of  apples  planted  in  1897.  This  is  a  return 
of  10  per  cent  on  a  valuation  of  $6,500  per  acre. 

D'Anjou  pears  from  a  single  tree  in  an  orchard  near 
Central  Point,  Oregon,  in  1907  sold  for  $204.75  net. 

Near  this  same  place  another  man  harvested  3,020  boxes 


Profits  in  Fruit  Growing  203 

of    apples,  the    fruit    from    fifty-two    trees,  which    netted 
$1,747.62. 

This  happened  in  a  valley  famous  for  its  fruit  crops  and 
its  enormous  returns.  In  that  valley  one  grower  got  $1,050 
net  from  one  acre  of  Spitzenburg  apples,  and  $1,420  front 
an  acre  of  Newtowns.  Another  got  $1,620  from  an  acre  of 
Spitzenburgs.  In  another  orchard  the  crop  of  Bartlett 
pears  from  a  single  acre  brought  $1,244  after  all  expenses 
were  paid. 

Near  Phoenix,  Ariz.,  one  man  got  $3,300  in  net  profit 
from  the  first  crop  of  fruit  produced  on  nineteen  acres. 

Not  far  from  Mt.  Selma,  Texas,  a  fruit  grower  got  a 
profit  of  $500  from  five  acres  of  peaches.  Another  man 
gets  $2,800  from  nineteen  acres,  ten  of  which  are  in  peaches 
and  the  rest  tomatoes. 

In  Michigan  a  fruit  man  got  $900  from  three  acres  of 
strawberries,  and  another  man  down  in  Mississippi  got 
$450  from  one  acre  of  strawberries.  A  farmer  in  Marien- 
ette  County,  Wisconsin,  sold  $250  worth  of  strawberries 
from  one-fourth  acre  of  land.  A  neighbor  of  his  got 
$922.54  after  paying  all  expenses  in  harvesting  and  market- 
ing the  crop  from  two  and  one-fourth  acres  of  strawber- 
ries. A  man  near  Superior  beat  these  men  a  little  in 'get- 
ting $800  from  one  acre  of  strawberries. 

From  these  figures  it  is  evident  that  the  fruit  grower 
has  abundant  opportunity  to  obtain  large  returns  from  his 
efforts.  These  returns  are  not  the  maximum  that  is  pos- 
sible to  obtain,  but  represent  incomes  received  by  the  aver- 
age intelligent  grower. 


204  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


CHAPTER  IX 


Small  Fruits 

Blackberries 

The  blackberry  is  a  native  American  fruit,  growing  wild 
over  a  great  portion  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  country. 
Until  about  1840  no  attention  was  given  to  it  under  culti- 
vation, as  the  wild  patches  were  abundant  and  fruitful, 
but  in  1841  the  first  cultivated  form  was  introduced  and 
was  followed  in  a  short  time  by  the  Lawton,  Kittitinny 
and  Snyder.  These  varieties  are  still  the  leading  sorts 
under  cultivation,  and,  while  they  have  many  desirable 
characters,  they  point  to  the  neglect  which  horticulturists 
have  given  to  the  improvement  of  blackberries. 

While  the  area  of  succcessful  cultivation  of  the  black- 
berry does  net  extend  as  far  north  as  the  raspberry,  it 
reaches  over  a  great  portion  of  the  South,  in  sections  where 
the  other  kinds  of  bush  fruits  do  not  succeed.  The  kind 
of  soil  which  is  preferred  by  blackberry  is  indicated  by  the 
soil  in  which  the  wild  sorts  are  found  to  do  the  best.  This 
is  a  strong  moist  loam,  in  full  sunlight.  Where  the  soil 
becomes  water  logged  for  any  portion  of  the  year  the  ber- 
ries do  not  thrive,  and  if  the  situation  is  one  which  be- 
comes excessively  dry  during  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
year,  the  plants  do  not  do  well.  On  this  account,  low- 
ground  or  very  sandy  soil  is  not  suitable  for  blackberries, 
although  if  given  very  good  care  in  such  locations  they 
will  produce  some  for  home  use.  Where  the  plants  are  to 
be  set  in  sandy  soil  they  should  be  placed  on  a  northern 
slope,  as  in  such  a  position  they  will  not  be  so  liable  to 


Planting  205 

suffer  from  lack  of  moisture;  while  in  low  ground  a  strong 
southern  exposure  will  be  better  as  it  will  be  somewhat 
dryer  than  a  similar  position  on  a  northern  slope. 

Soils  which  are  very  rich  in  nitrogen  produce  plants 
with  very  strong  wood,  but  little  fruit,  as  the  energy  is 
largely  spent  in  making  wood  growth,  at  the  expense  of 
fruitfulness.  On  this  account  there  will  be  more  or  less 
winter  killing  of  the  shoots  in  the  Northern  localities. 

Preparing  the  Soil 

The  land  which  is  to  be  planted  to  blackberries  should 
be  given  very  good  preparation,  especially  if  it  is  for  a 
commercial  or  local  market  plantation.  Plow  it  deeply  in 
the  fall  and  allow  to  lay  rough  all  winter.  The  action  of 
the  frost  will  break  up  the  lumps  and  liberate  a  large 
amount  of  the  fertility.  Then  work  it  down  smooth  with 
a  disk  harrow  as  early  in  the  spring  as  it  is  in  condition  to 
work,  finishing  up  with  a  drag.  Lay  off  the  rows  with  a 
diamond  plow,  about  eight  feet  apart  and  set  the  plants 
four  feet  apart  in  the  row. 

Propagation 

Blackberries  are  propagated  either  from  root  cuttings 
or  from  suckers  which  come  up  around  the  .parent  plant. 
Either  can  be  used  with  success  in  starting  the  new  planta- 
tion, although  if  cuttings  are  to  be  used,  they  should  be 
grown  for  one  season  in  the  nursery  row  in  order  to  get 
established. 

Planting 

Spring  planting  is  the  best,  as  the  plants  start  into 
growth  immediately.  The  young  plants  are  set  in  the 
furrow  made  by  the  diamond  plow,  and  about  four  inches 
below  the  surface.  During  the  first  year  or  two  the  cul- 
tivation should  be  very  thorough  and  frequent  in  order  to 
induce  the  roots  of  the  plants  to  penetrate  into  the  deeper 


206 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


soil,  after  which  time  the  cultivation  may  be  stopped,  ex- 
cept for  just  enough  to  control  the  suckers  which  may 
appear  in  the  middle  of  the  rows.  Sweeps  or  square  point- 
ed shovels  on  the  cultivator  make  the  best  tools  to  keep 
the  suckers  cut  out,  and  this  work  should  not  be  neglected, 
for  unless  the  suckers  are  cut  out  as  fast  as  they  appear 
the  plantation  will  become  a  brier  patch  in  a  couple  of 
seasons  and  so  badly  tangled  with  the  thorny  canes  as  to. 


At  13a  Is  shown  the 
usual  method  of  mak- 
ing- root  cuttings  of 
the  blackberry;  13b 
shows  one  of  the 
same  cuttings  after  it 
has  started  to  grow. 


1.13  Cl 


make  it  difficult  to  get  through  to  harvest  the  fruit.  In 
fact,  the  fruit  from  plantations  which  are  not  cultivated 
and  pruned  is  smaller  and  more  seedy  than  from  those 
which  are  given  good  care. 


Pruning 

The  canes  of  blackberries  and  other  bramble  fruits  are 
biennial;  that  is,  they  live  but  two  years.  On  this  account 
it  is  necessary  to  cut  out  the  old  canes  as  soon  as  their 


Harvesting  and  Marketing  207 

function  has  been  completed  and  leave  the  room  for  the 
young  canes.  The  first  year  after  planting  two  or  three 
canes  will  appear,  which  should  have  the  growing  tip 
pinched  out  when  the  cane  becomes  about  eighteen  inches 
or  two  feet  high.  This  will  cause  the  canes  to  send  out 
several  lateral  branches  and  make  stocky  plants.  This 
pinched  out  when  they  become  about  eighteen  inches 
after  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  the  plants  to  send  out 
lateral  branches,  and  thereby  fncreasing  the  fruit  producing 
area  of  each  plant.  After  the  second  year  the  pinching 
should  be  done  when  the  new  canes  become  two  or  three 
feet  high,  depending  on  the  vigor  of  the  plants.  Some 
growers  practice  cutting  out  the  old  canes  just  as  soon  as 
the  fruit  has  been  harvested,  while  others  will  allow  them 
to  remain  until  the  following  spring.  Whether  they  are 
cut  out  in  the  summer  or  the  following  spring  seems  to 
make  little  difference,  but  in  the  spring  the  lateral  branches 
should  all  be  cut  back  about  one-third.  This  will  make 
the  plants  stockier  and  less  liable  to  fall  over  when  carry- 
ing their  fruit,  and  it  will  also  thin  the  fruit,  by  removing 
some  of  the  fruit  producing  wood. 

Harvesting  and  Marketing 

For  distant  markets  the  blackberry  should  be  picked 
at  just  the  time  that  it  begins  to  color  nicely,  and  while 
the  berry  is  still  solid.  But  for  local  markets  and  home 
use  the  fruit  should  be  allowed  to  become  more  nearly 
fully  ripe.  The  fruit  which  is  picked  before  it  has  reached 
full  maturity  will  be  quite  acid,  and  just  as  it  is  picked 
from  the  plants  it  will  not  be  suitable  for  use,  although  it 
will  soften  up  and  take  on  a  very  good  flavor  in  the  course 
of  a  few  days,  while  it  is  going  to  market.  Fruit  which 
has  ripened  on  the  pla'nts  is  by  far  the  most  delicious,  but 
on  account  of  the  very  thin  and  tender  skin  such  fruit  will 
not  bear  transportation,  as  it  is  very  juicy  and  leaks  badly 
when  even  slightly  crushed. 

Marketing  is  usually  done  in  quart  boxes,  although 
when  the  fruit  is  to  be  shipped  for  a  considerable  distance 
the  one  pint  cups  will  carry  the  fruit  with  less  injury  from 


208  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

crushing.  In  such  cups  blackberries  have  been  sent  with 
complete  satisfaction  from  the  Puget  Sound  country  of 
Washington  to  Chicago. 

Winter  Protection 

In  regions  of  severe  winters,  such  as  from  northern 
Missouri  northward,  tender  varieties,  such  as  Early  Har- 
vest, will  need  to  be  protected  to  prevent  winter  killing. 
In  northern  Iowa  and  Minnesota  it  is  advisable  to  protect 
all  varieties  of  blackberries  in  the  winter  to  keep  the  canes 
from  being  killed.  This  winter  protection  is  usually  done 
by  bending  the  canes  over  and  covering  them  with  soil. 
Begin  at  one  end  of  them  and  bend  the  canes  over  to  the 
north  or  west,  as  they  will  then  hold  the  snow  better. 
Cover  the  tips  with  soil  to  hold  them  down.  Bend  the 
next  hill  over  this,  shingle  fashion,  and  weight  down  the 
tips.  Then  when  all  are  bent  over,  mulch  them  well  with 
straw.  For  such  practice  better  results  can  be  obtained 
by  growing  the  plants  in  hills  rather  than  in  solid  rows. 

Currants 

The  currant  is  essentially  a  Northern  fruit  as  in  the 
Northern  states,  where  the  weather  is  cool  during  the  sum- 
ers,  it  reaches  its  best  development.  In  the  Middle  and 
Southern  states  it  produces  fair  crops  of  fruit  when  placed 
in  a  semi-shaded  position,  as  on  the  northern  side  of  a  row 
of  trees,  or  a  fence.  The  currant  enjoys  a  cool  atmosphere 
and  thrives  in  the  climate  of  the  northern  portion  of  the 
Mississippi  valley. 

The  cultivated  varieties  have  come  from  a  number  of 
wild  forms,  mostly  natives  of  Europe,  and  because  of  the 
diversity  of  the  types  from  which  these  varieties  have 
originated,  we  have  in  cultivation  several  kinds  of  dif- 
ferent colors,  such  as  black,  red  and  white  kinds.  These 
all  differ  quite  markedly  in  flavor,  and  the  red  and  white 
varieties  are  most  extensively  grown.  The  black  forms 
have  a  flavor  which  does  not  appeal  to  many  persons  and 
are  grown  but  little  outside  of  Canada. 


Propagating  and  Planting 
Propagation  and  Planting 


209 


The  currant  may  be  propagated  by  division  of  the 
parent  plant,  by  layers  or  by  hard  wood  cuttings.  Which- 
ever is  used,  the  plants  should  be  set  in  well  prepared  soil, 
which  is  rich,  fertile  and  well  drained.  Two-year-old 


Currant  cuttings  tied  in  a  bundle  and  buried  upside  down 
to  callus. 


plants  from  cuttings  are  better  for  setting  in  the  field,  as 
they  are  larger  and  can  be  handled  more  rapidly  than  the 
newly  rooted  cuttings. 


210  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

The  common  distance  for  setting  currants  is  five  feet 
apart  in  the  rows  with  the  rows  eight  feet  apart. 

Pruning 

The  best  fruit  is  produced  on  canes  which  are  not  over 
four  or  five  years  old.  For  this  reason  they  will  not  need 
as  much  pruning  as  other  kinds  of  bush  fruit  but  will  need 
to  be  gone  over  and  have  the  oldest  wood  cut  out,  leaving 
the  hills  full  of  strong  fruitful  wood.  By  cutting  out  a  few 
of  the  old  canes  each  year  a  balance  may  be  kept  between 
the  new  and  old  canes,  and  the  plant  kept  in  a  vigorous 
and  fruitful  condition. 

On  vigorous  plants  the  shoots  are  inclined  to  make 
very  strong  growths,  often  reaching  a  height  of  six  feet 
*in  a  single  season.  When  such  is  the  case  it  is  best  to 
keep  them  pinched  back  to  about  three  feet  as  in  the  case 
of  the  raspberry.  It  is  also  an  advantage  to  cut  out  all 
but  five  or  six  of  the  strongest  r.  nes  in  each  hill.  Winter 
protection  is  not  necessary  with  ihe  currants  and  goose- 
berries. But  on  account  of  the  long  slender  branches 
which  they  produce,  in  regions  where  there  is  a  heavy 
snowfall,  these  branches  may  be  bent  over  to  the  ground 
with  the  weight  of  the  snow.  On  this  account  it  is  best  to 
gather  the  canes  into  a  bundle  and  tie  them  with  a  cord  to 
prevent  their  being  bent  over. 

Dewberry 

This  is  a  trailing  form  of  the  blackberry  that  has  but 
recently  come  into  cdltivation.  It  grows  in  all  parts  of 
the  country  and  its  fruit  cannot  be  distinguished  by  the 
general  public  from  the  ordinary  varieties  of  blackberries. 
Its  chief  advantage  is  that  it  comes  in  some  two  or  three 
weeks  ahead  of  the  ordinary  kinds  of  blackberries,  coming 
in  after  the  raspberries  have  passed,  and  fills  the  gap  when 
good  prices  can  be  had  for  the  fruit.  As  a  rule  they  are 
not  sure  croppers  in  most  places,  due  perhaps  to  imperfect 
pollinization,  and  when  such  is  the  case  it  can  be  overcome 
by  planting  several  varieties  together. 


Propagating  and  Planting  211 

Soils 

The  wild  plants  are  found  growing  on  sandy  or  other- 
wise well  drained  and  rather  impoverished  soils.  This  may 
be  because  it  is  crowded  out  of  the  better  locations  by 
other  kinds  of  plants,  and  can  maintain  its  existence  only 
on  those  soils  which  are  too  poor  to  support  other  kinds 
of  vegetation.  Under  cultivation  it  does  well  on  a  great  va- 
riety of  soils,  and  locations  which  are  suitable  for  black- 
berries do  well  for  the  dewberry. 

Propagation  and  Training 

Dewberries  are  propagated  from  rooted  tips,  as  are  the 
black  raspberries,  and  also  from  root  cuttings.  The  plants 
are  set  in  rows  4  to  6  feet  apart  and  2  or  3  feet  apart  in 
the  row.  The  best  system  of  culture  is  to  train  the  vines 
on  a  trellis  or  tie  them  to  stakes.  Some  growers  allow  the 
vines  to  run  over  the  surface,  and  are  pruned  just  enough 
to  Keep  them  in  hills. 

Where  the  winters  are  so  severe  as  to  make  it  neces- 
sary to  protect  the  plants  during  the  winter,  they  can  be 
most  easily  handled  when  placed  on  a  trellis  or  tied  to 
posts. 

The  trellises  are  made  by  running  two  wires  along  the 
row  on  posts  about  two  feet  high,  bearing  at  the  two  ends 
a  cross  arm  twenty  inches  wide.  The  wires  are  fastened 
to  the  ends  of  these  cross  arms  and  the  canes  drawn  up 
over  them.  About  a  dozen  canes  can  be  allowed  to  form 
in  each  hill  with  this  style  of  training.  Where  single  posts 
are  used  there  can  be  no  more  than  half  a  dozen  canes 
from  each  hill,  and  they  are  tied  to  the  post  and  allowed 
to  fall  over  the  top. 

The  culture  of  the  dewberry  is  similar  in  every  detail 
to  that  of  the  blackberry.  When  given  good  care  they  are 
very  productive  but  when  neglected  the  iruitfulness  is  vari- 
able. Young  plantations  need  to  be  kept  in  clean  culti- 
vation until  the  plants  are  well  established.  In  cold  cli- 
mates the  canes  will  need  to  be  covered  in  the  winter  to 


212  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

prevent  their  being  frozen  back.  When  trained  to  posts 
they  can  be  laid  down  very  easily  and  covered  with 
soil.  If  the  canes  are  pegged  down  and  covered  with 
leaves  or  straw,  a  plow  furrow  can  be  run  on  each  side 
turning  the  soil  over  the  plants,  and  a*n  entire  row  covered 
very  quickly. 

Grapes 

The  grape  is  the  most  widely  cultivated  of  all  kinds  of 
fruits.  It  is  found  growing  wild  on  nearly  every  conti- 
nent in  the  world,  and  cultivated  forms  have  been  in  vine- 
yards at  almost  every  stage  of  the  world's  history.  It  is 
the  fruit  for  the  masses  since  varieties  can  be  had  which 
are  adapted  to  almost  any  condition  of  soil  or  climate. 
Because  of  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  grown  the  grape 
is  especially  desirable  for  the  home  grounds,  as  it  will 
flourish  and  produce  acceptable  crops  under  conditions 
where  tree  fruits  could  not  find  room.  The  grape  is  one 
of  the  most  delicious  of  fruits,  and  because  of  the  great 
number  of  varieties,  obtained  from  an  almost  innumerable 
list  of  ancestors,  it  can  be  had  in  a  good  many  flavors  and 
shades  of  color,  so  that  all  persons  can  find  among  the 
varieties  some  kinds  which  are  to  their  liking. 

There  are  so  many  different  varieties  of  grapes  that 
kinds  can  be  had  which  are  adapted  to  almost  any  condi- 
tion, and  which  will  succeed  in  almost  any  climate  where 
fruit  can  be  grown.  It  is  easily  propagated,  easily  grown, 
bears  early,  lives  much  longer  than  the  average  bush  or 
tree  and  gives  a  larger  amount  of  fruit  under  average  con- 
ditions of  the  home  garden  than  any  other  kind  of  plant. 

Soil  and  Location. 

As  a  rule  the  grape  is  not  particular  as  to  the  soil  or 
location  in  which  it  is  grown,  although  some  kinds  produce 
better  when  given  special  locations.  But  in  general  the 
grape  will  do  well  in  soils  that  are  rocky,  sandy  or  heavy 
clay,  rich  or  poor,  and  under  conditions  where  other  fruits 
would  fail.  For  the  commercial  plantation,  however,  this 


Planting  213 

should  not  indicate  that  care  need  not  be  given  to  the 
selection  of  a  site  that  is  adapted  to  the  growing  of  the 
grape,  and  especially  the  kinds  which  it  is  intended  to 
plant.  Grapes  draw  heavily  on  the  available  fertility  in 
the  soil,  arid  the  greater  the  care  that  is  given  to  building 
up  a  good  rich  soil  before  planting  grapes  the  better  they 
will  respond  in  fruitfulness.  Under  general  conditions,  a 
clay  loam  which  is  well  drained  will  give  the  best  results. 
The  best  location  is  one  which  has  a  southern  or  east- 
ern slope,  as  in  such  positions  the  land  is  not  so  likely  to 
be  overly  wet,  and  the  dews  will  pass  off  more  quickly 
than  on  northern  slopes.  This  is  of  importance  in  guard- 
ing from  the  attacks  of  numerous  diseases  to  which  the 
grapes  are  liable.  Steep  hillsides  are  often  made  into 
profitable  vineyards,  and  likewise  are  many  pieces  of  flat 
land  in  the  river  bottoms.  But  the  proper  precautions 
must  be  taken  under  each  condition  to  protect  from  the 
troubles  both  situations  will  bring.  Steep  lands  are  hard 
to  cultivate  and  to  get  over  with  the  spraying  machinery, 
while  bottom  lands  are  both  frosty  and  disease  producing. 

Preparation  of  Soil 

As  the  grape  is  a  strong  feeder  the  soil  should  be  well 
prepared  before  planting,  especially  if  it  is  not  naturally 
fertile.  It  is  even  best  under  average  conditions  to  grow 
some  leguminous  crop  for  a  couple  of  years  before  plant- 
ing the  vines  in  order  to  fill  the  soil  with  organic  matter 
to  improve  the  texture  and  nitrogen.  When  turning  under 
a  crop  of  green  manure  it  should  be  turned  under  as  deeply 
as  possible  and  then  work  down  smooth  with  a  disk  harrow. 
It  should  be  remembered  in  setting  a  vineyard  that  it  is  to 
last  a  lifetime  and  more,  and  like  building  a  house  the  more 
solid  the  foundation  the  better  will  be  the  super  structure. 
A  vineyard  which  is  well  planted  will  be  more  easily  cared 
for  in  future  years  and  be  more  profitable  than  one  which 
is  put  in  in  a  hurry. 

Planting. 

On  this  account  the  ground  should  be  rich  at  the  time 
the  vines  are  planted  in  order  to  give  the  young  plants  a 


214 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


good  start.  If  manure  is  available,  a  generous  amount  of 
it  should  be  worked  into  the  soil  a  couple  of  years  before 
setting  the  vines,  as  it  will  then  become  thoroughly 


At  a  are  shown  several  single-eye  grape  cuttings,  and  at 
b  the  ordinary  three-eye  grape  cuttings  as  commonly  made. 


decomposed  and  be  in  better  shape  for  the  reception  of 
the  young  plants.  One-year-old  vines  are  the  most  satis- 
factory, unless  especially  well  grown  two-year-old  vines 
can  be  had.  The  objection  that  is  made  to  two-year-old 


Planting  215 

vines  by  many  experienced  vineyardists,  is  that  they  are 
left-overs  which  the  nurseryman  has  lined-out  and  grown 
a  second,  or  even  a  third  year  before  being  able  to  dispose 
of  them.  The  planting  should  be  done  as  early  -in  the 
spring  as  it  is  possible  to  work  the  soil  into  good  condi- 
tion. 

The  distance  apart  to  set  the  vines  varies  to  a  great 
extent  with  the  variety  and  local  conditions,  but  for  the 
Eastern  and  Middle  Western  conditions  6x8  feet  apart  is 
the  usual  distance.  Where  the  soil  is  especially  fertile, 
and  the  vines  are  of  very  strong  growing  varieties,  the  dis- 
tance should  be  even  farther  apart  than  this.  The  oper- 
ation of  planting  the  vines  goes  a  little  slower  than  with 
planting  tree  fruits,  for  as  a  rule  the  roots  are  much 
longer  and  the  holes  must  be  made  larger. 

Before  planting,  the  tops  should  be  cut  back  so  as  to 
leave  only  about  four  buds  on  the  new  growth,  and  the 
roots  so  that  they  are  about  ten  inches  long.  This  may 
take  off  a  very  large  portion  of  the  root  system,  but  many 
small  rootlets  will  quickly  be  sent  out  to  take  their  place, 
and  the  vine  will  start  off  more  quickly  than  if  the  roots 
and  tops  are  left  unpruned.  In  setting  these  young  vines 
in  the  ground  tliey  must  be  set  deep.  There  is  little  trou- 
ble from  getting  them  too  deep,  as  with  some  other  kinds 
of  fruit,  for  if  the  roots  should  be  at  a  greater  depth  than 
they  can  grow,  new  roots  are  sent  out  above  them,  and 
the  vine  goes  along  in  fine  shape. 

Early  spring  is  the  best  time  to  set  the  vines,  although 
it  is  possible  to  set  them  at  any  time  when  the  plants  are 
dormant  and  the  soil  in  good  condition.  In  the  far  North 
it  is  generally  best  to  plant  the  vines  in  the  spring  as  they 
will  then  not  be  subjected  to  the  long  period  of  dormancy 
on  account  of  the  ground  being  frozen,  and  the  plants  pre- 
vented from  becoming  established.  In  the  Gulf  Coast 
country  it  is  frequently  best  to  plant  the  vines  in  the  fall, 
for  the  weather  will  be  sufficiently  mild  during  the  winter 
for  them  to  make  considerable  root  growth  before  spring 
comes,  and  will  then  be  well  established  and  ready  to  start 
off  in  fine  shape. 


216  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

During  the  first  year  the  vines  are  in  their  permanent 
location  they  will  not  be  in  need  of  a  trellis.  With  many 
varieties  the  only  support  that  will  be  needed  the  second 
year  will  be  just  a  post  to  which  the  vines  can  be  tied  to 
keep  them  off  the  ground.  By  the  beginning  of  the  third 
season  there  should  be  some  sort  of  substantial  support  to 
which  the  vines  can  be  tied.  In  the  home  grounds  an 
arbor  can  be  made  which  will  be  very  serviceable  in  sup- 
porting the  vines  and  also  quite  ornamental.  In  the  com- 
mercial plantation  a  trellis  of  some  sort  should  be  con- 
structed, as  the  vines  can  then  be  cared  for  in  better  shape, 
ttnless  the  variety  is  one  which  makes  but  a  small  amount 
of  vine,  as  is  the  case  with  some  of  vinifera  type.  There 
are  several  styles  of  trellises  used  for  grapes,  depending 
on  which  of  many  styles  of  training  are  in  use.  One  of 
the  commonest  is  a  two-wire  trellis  in  which  the  top  wire 
is  about  five  feet  from  the  ground,  and  the  other  at  about 
three  feet.  For  training  on  such  a  trellis  only  two  canes 
are  allowed  to  form  and  these  are  cut  off  at  the  top  wire 
and  spread  out  fan-shaped  on  the  trellis  wires. 

What  is  known  as  the  Kniffen  system  has  a  trellis  con- 
structed in  about  the  same  manner.  One  cane  is  drawn  up 
to  the  topmost  wire,  where  it  is  then  cut  off.  At  each  of 
the  wires  two  side  branches  are  permitted  to  grow,  and 
one  is  allowed  to  run  in  each  direction  on  both  wires  to  a 
distance  about  half  way  to  the  next  vine.  These  are  not 
cut  off  but  allowed  to  remain  as  the  stock  from  which  the 
fruiting  wood  is  to  come.  The  fruiting  wood  is  then 
formed  on  each  one  of  these  arms  and  drops  down,  so  that 
tying  is  not  a  necessity. 

In  the  Munson  system  of  training  three  wires  are  used, 
one  wire  run  through  the  posts  at  about  six  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  the  other  two  placed  at  the  ends  of  "T"  shaped 
arms.  The  vines  are  trained  up  from  the  ground  to  this 
wire,  and  two  arms  allowed  to  form,  one  being  in  each 
direction.  The  new  canes  which  form  each  season  are  then 
allowed  to  droop  over  the  outer  wires,  while  the  per- 
manent arms  of  the  vine  are  fastened  to  the  middle  wire. 


Sex   in   Grapes  217 

Cultivation 

The  grape  responds  to  good  cultivation,  and  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  vines  be  given  good  cultivation  during 
the  first  years  in  the  vineyard,  and  enabled  to  become  well 
established,  after  which  time  the  land  can  be  put  into  sod 
if  so  desired.  However,  the  best  practice  is  to  keep  the 
vineyard  in  cultivation  for  the  early  portion  of  the  season 
at  least,  after  which  time  it  can  be  sowed  down  to  a  cover 
crop  of  some  sort. 

One  of  the  great  advantages  of  keeping  the  vineyard  in 
cultivation  is  because  this  will  bury  many  of  the  diseased 
berries  which  fall  from  the  branches  and  also  many  of  the 
leaves  which  contain  the  spores  of  the  mildews  and  black 
rot  that  sometimes  causes  such  havoc  in  vineyards.  If  the 
cultivation  is  continued  during  the  summer  it  will  also  assist 
in  keeping  the  curculio  in  check.  This  is  one  of  the  in- 
sects which  cause  the  worms  in  the  berries  of  the  grape. 
Whatever  cultivation  is  given,  it  should  extend  under  the 
trellis,  and  work  up  all  of  the  soil  in  the  row.  Some- 
times it  will  necessitate  a  good  thorough  going  ovei; 
with  a  hand  hoe  to  get  this  portion  of  the  soil  worked  up 
as  thoroughly  as  it  needs  to  be. 

Sex  in  Grapes 

Like  the  strawberry  in  some  ways,  there  is  a  great 
amount  of  difference  in  the  different  varieties  of  grapes  as 
to  their  ability  of  setting  fruit  when  planted  by  themselves. 
Nearly  every  one  who  has  wandered  through  the  woodland 
is  familiar  with  wild  grape  vines  which  bloom  abundantly 
each  spring  and  fill  the  air  with  their  delicious  fragrance, 
but  which  fail  to  set  a  single  fruit  for  the  fall  harvest.  This 
is  nearly  always  due  to  the  fact  that  the  vine  produces 
nothing  but  stamen-bearing  flowers,  and  is  totally  devoid 
of  the  ovary  or  fruit-producing  portion,  and  hence  unable 
to  set  fruit.  Other  vines  will  be  found  which  produce  an 
abundance  of  flowers,  less  conspicuous  and  fragrant  than 
the  staminate  flowers,  but  which  may  or  may  not  set  fruit, 
depending  on  the  proximity  of  other  vines.  If  the  flowers 


218 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


of  these  are  observed  they  will  be  found  to  have  a  con- 
spicuous cone-shaped  body  in  the  center  surrounding 
which  is  a  row  of  small,  withered  anthers,  usually  bent 
down  and  under  the  cone-shaped  portion.  This  central  part 
of  the  flower  is  the  pistil  and  ovary,  from  which  the  fruit  is 
developed  when  the  flower  is  properly  pollinated.  Still 
other  w.;ld  vines  will  be  found  to  have  flowers  which  pro- 


Grapes  "bagged"  to  protect  them  from  birds  and  insects 
and  to  keep  them  clean. 


duce  both  ovaries  and  strong,  erect  stamens,  and  which 
are  therefore  called  perfect  flowers.  These  vines  are  able 
to  set  fruit  without  the  intervention  of  the  pollen  from 
other  vines. 

In  the  cultivated  varieties  the  same  things  are  found,  in 
that  some  vines  are  imperfect  flowered  and  must  have  sta- 
men-bearing vines  planted  near  them  in  order  to  secure 


Pruning  219 

proper  fruiting  of  the  vines.  These  facts  are  usually  well 
known  to  the  nurserymen  and  prominent  vineyardists.  f  rom 
whom  the  amateur  can  obtain  the  desired  information,  in 
case  it  is  not  contained  in  the  books  or  catalogues  to 
which  he  has  access.  Likewise  the  information  is  obtain- 
able from  the  experiment  station  authorities  upon  request. 
Vines  w'hich  bear  the  imperfect  flowers  need  to  have 
planted  with  them  the  vines  of  other  varieties  known  to 
produce  an  abundance  of  pollen,  and  which  bloom  at  about 
the  same  time. 

Pruning 

The  grape  responds  to  the  style  of  pruning  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  done  more  than  any  other  cultivated 
fruit.  Good  grapes  cannot  be  produced  on  vines  which 
are  not  regularly  and  systematically  pruned.  Yet  more 
vineyards  are  ruined  through  improper  pruning  than  in  any 
other  way.  Too  many  growers,  especially  those  who  do 
not  observe  the  action  of  their  vines  closely  enough,  ex- 
pect their  vines  to  do  too  much.  They  leave  too  much 
fruit-producing  wood.  In  this  way  the  vines  continually 
over-bear  themselves,  and  are  quickly  exhausted. 

The  manner  of  pruning  will  differ  with  different  varie- 
ties. Some  need  to  be  left  with  long  canes  of  fruiting 
wood,  while  others  need  to  be  cut  back  to  spurs  on  which 
there  are  only  a  couple  of  buds.  Some  kinds  will  need  to 
have  short  but  strong  fruiting  canes  left,  while  others  will 
do  best  when  the  small,  short-jointed  canes  are  used  for 
fruiting  wood. 

One  thing  needs  to  be  borne  in  mind  with  the  usual 
kinds  of  grapes — that  is,  to  keep  the  bearing  wood  close 
to  the  original  trunk  or  head  of  the  vine.  The  tendency  is 
for  the  fruiting  wood  to  get  farther  and  farther  away  each 
year,  and  on  account  of  this  habit  it  is  important  that  the 
fruit-producing  canes  be  renewed  from  time  to  time,  by 
being  cut  back  to  the  stump.  This  will  cause  new  shoots 
to  form  on  the  trunk,  thereby  renewing  the  fruiting  wood. 
With  vines  which  are  trained  on  a  trellis  this  renewal  need 
not  be  done  until  the  spurs  or  canes  get  out  so  far  they 


220  The  Fru it-Growers  Guide-Book 

cannot  be  easily  handled,  then  it  will  be  necessary  to  head 
them  back,  and  take  a  fresh  start.  The  usual  systems  of 
training  grapes  provide  for  this  condition,  and,  in  fact,  the 
usual  systems  are  dependent  on  this  one  thing  for  their 
foundation. 

Time  to  Prune 

The  grape  can  be  pruned  at  any  time  during  the  dormant 
season,  although  it  is  important  to  do  it  sufficiently  early 
in  the  spring  to  avoid  the  excessive  bleeding  which  will 
sometimes  occur.  Tender  varieties  should  be  pruned  in  the 
fall  in  order  that  they  can  be  bent  over  and  covered  with 
soil  to  prevent  their  becoming  winter  killed.  Some  definite 
system  should  be  followed  in  the  pruning,  and  if  the 
grower  is  outside  of  a  grape-growing  community,  it  will  be 
advisable  to  learn  some  system  of  pruning  that  is  adapted 
to  his  conditions.  This  can  be  obtained  from  books  treat- 
ing of  the  subject  of  pruning  or  of  grape  growing. 

In  sections  where  the  grape  is  a  commercial  crop  the 
system  of  pruning  which  gives  the  best  results  will  usually 
be  pretty  thoroughly  worked  out,  and  will  be  the  best  sys- 
tem to  follow. 

Raspberries 

The  raspberry  is  one  of  the  most  popular  small  fruits, 
although  its  area  of  successful  commercial  production  is 
limited  to  the  northern  half  of  the  United  States  and  the 
Pacific  Coast.  Over  this  area,  however,  it  is  one  of  the 
most  popular  of  the  bush  fruits,  the  blackcap  being  the 
most  extensively  grown  for  the  commercial  market.  This 
is  on  account  of  the  soft  fruits  which  are  produced  by  the 
red  varieties,  and  the  ease  with  which  such  kinds  are  dam- 
aged in  transit. 

Soils 

Soils  such  as  are  adapted  to  the  blackberry  are  best  for 
the  raspberries.  Red  raspberries  do  better  on  a  light  soil 
than  do  the  blackcap  varieties.  Soils  which  are  very  heavy, 


Propagation  and  Planting 


221 


or  which  contain  large  amounts  of  available  nitrogen  are 
not  desirable.  The  latter  kinds  will  produce  an  excessive 
amount  of  wood  at  the  expense  of  the  fruit.  Good,  strong 
loams  are  the  most  desirable. 


-  Propagation  and  Planting 

Blackcap  raspberries  are  propagated  from  the   rooted 
tips   of   the   branches   which   form   the  previous   summer. 


A  cane  from  a  black  raspberry  showing  how  the  lateral 
branches  take  root  at  the  tips,  where  they  touch  the  ground. 


When  these  are  well  rooted  they  may  be  cut  from  the 
mother  plant  and  used  in  setting  the  new  plantation. 
Spring  planting  is  most  desirable,  as  the  plants  can  start 
immediately  into  growth,  attach  their  roots  to  the  soil  and 
not  suffer  from  drying  out  as  frequently  happens  when 


222  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

they  are  set  in  the  fall  and  must  remain  dormant  through- 
out the  winter. 

Red  varieties  are  usually  propagated  from  stickers 
thrown  up  from  the  roots,  but  root  cuttings  may  also  be 
made  the  same  as  with  blackberries  and  dewberries.  Some 
varieties  of  the  red  raspberry  do  not  make  suckers  very 
readily  and  so  must  be  propagated  from  root  cuttings. 

The  rows  need  to  be  about  six  feet  apart  and  the  plants 
set  four  or  five  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  if  they  are  to  be 
grown  in  hills.  If  solid  rows  are  to  be  made,  then  the 
plants  can  go  as  close  as  two  feet  in  the  rows.  The  hill 
system  is  the  most  desirable  where  the  canes  must  be  bent 
over  for  winter  protection. 

Pinching  and  Pruning 

With  the  red  varieties  there  will  be  no  need  of  summer 
pinching  after  the  first  summer.  The  blackcaps  will  need 
to  be  pinched  in  the  same  manner  as  the  blackberries.  This 
will  make  them  throw  out  strong  side  branches,  which  may 
grow  out  to  a  considerable  length  and  take  root  at  the  tip. 
These  tips  can  be  used  in  enlarging  the  plantation,  or  may 
be  dug  cut  and  thrown  away  as,  if  left,  they  will  interfere 
with  cultivation.  The  canes  of  both  the  red  and  black  va- 
rieties are  biennial,  so  that  all  old  canes  should  be  removed 
when  done  fruiting.  It  is  best  to  remove  them  as  soon  as 
the  fruit  has  all  been  harvested,  as  then  the  entire  space 
can  be  given  over  to  the  new  canes. 

Winter  Protection 

In  the  Northern  States,  where  the  weather  becomes  se- 
vere during  the  winter,  the  canes  of  both  kinds  of  rasp- 
berries are  killed  to  the  ground.  On  this  account  it  is 
advisable  to  bend  the  canes  over  and  cover  them  with  soil 
as  in  the  case  of  the  blackberries.  This  work  should  be 
done  at  a  time  when  the  canes  are  not  frozen,  as  when  the 
wood  is  frozen  it  is  very  brittle,  and  the  canes  will  break 
instead  of  bending. 


Strawberries   -  223 

Strawberries 

The  strawberry  is  the  most  important  of  all  of  the  small 
fruits,  and  it  readily  finds  a  place  in  the  garden  of  the 
farmer,  in  the  dooryard  of  the.  city  man  and  in  great  plan- 
tations of  the  specialist.  It  is  the  one  fruit  used  more  ex- 
tensively than  any  other  to  plant  among  trees  in  the  young 
orchards,  and  which  the  grower  can  depend  on  to  make  a 
profit  while  the  young  trees  are  coming  into  bearing. 

The  strawberry  is  a  cosmopolitan  fruit,  and  is  found 
under  cultivation  in  great  plantations  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  to  northern  Canada  and  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  to 
the  Pacific  coast.  So  widely  distributed,  in  fact,  are  the 
commercial  plantations  of  this  delicious  fruit  that  it  cannot 
be  said  to  be  confined  to  certain  "belts"  of  profitable  com- 
mercial production,  as  can  the  apple,  peach  or  prune.  This 
character,  which  permits  this  wide  adaptation,  comes  pos- 
sibly from  the  fact  that  its  parentage  is  among  almost  a 
dozen  wild  species,  coming  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
This  fact,  too,  has  made  it  possible  to  have  varieties  which 
are  adapted  to  widely  differing  conditions  and  filling  a  va- 
riety of  needs.  One  may  find  varieties  producing  firm  ber- 
ries that  will  stand  shipments  of  some  thousands  of  miles; 
others  will  be  sweet  and  melting,  and  suited  only  to  home 
markets.  Other  varieties  will  come  early,  and  still  others 
that  come  late.  New  forms  are  being  created  at  the  pres- 
ent time  which  give  good  promise  of  producing  fruit 
throughout  the  entire  summer,  while  still  other  kinds  are 
being  developed  for  forcing  in  the  greenhouse  for  the  mid- 
winter markets. 

As  a  commercial  fruit  the  strawberry  is  rapidly  growing 
in  importance,  and  in  practically  every  state  there  are  now 
large  districts  where  this  fruit  is  the  leading  horticultural 
crop,  and  from  which  train  loads  of  the  fruit  are  shipped 
each  season.  This  is  a  development  of  recent  years,  and 
has  been  increased  by  the  perfection  of  methods  of  ship- 
ping fruits  under  refrigeration,  and  by  the  development  of 
the  large  commercial  orcharding  operations.  While  many 
thousands  of  acres  are  now  devoted  to  strawberry  produc- 
tion the  industry  dates  no  farther  back  than  about  1835, 


224 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


when  Hovey's  Seedling  was  placed  on  the  market  as  a 
variety  that  would  thrive  under  cultivation.  Up  to  that 
time  the  strawberry  was  known  only  as  a  wild  fruit,  and 
was  considered  to  thrive  only  in  its  haunts  in  the  wood- 
land. But  with  the  introduction  of  this  cultivated  form 
other  varieties  began  to  appear  and  each  year  now  sees 
many  new  varieties  placed  on  the  market  for  the  use  and 
consideration  of  the  cultivator. 


Propagation 

The  strawberry  reproduces  itself  with  considerable 
vigor,  in  all  but  a  few  choice  varieties.  This  manner  of 
reproducing  differs  from  the  habit  of  most  fruit  producing 
plants,  in  that  each  vigorous  plant  sends  out  a  number  of 


Diagram  showing-  the    manner    in 
sends  out  runners  to  reproduce  itself. 


which   a  strawberry 


runners,  which  form  new  plants  at  intervals  of  a  few 
inches.  These  new  plants  that  form  on  the  runners  quickly 
attach  themselves  to  the  soil  and  develop  root  systems  of 
their  own.  The  slender  straw-like  runner  which  nurses 
them  until  their  own  roots  are  formed  then  dies,  and  the 
new  plant  in  turn  sends  out  other  runners,  so  that  from  a 
small  beginning  a  very  large  number  of  plants  can  be  ob- 
tained in  the  course  of  one  season. 

In    starting   a   new   plantation    the    young   plants    give 
greater  satisfaction   than  do   those   which   have   produced 


Propagation  225 

a  crop  of  fruit.  It  is  easy  to  distinguish  these  young, 
virgin  plants  from  old  ones  by  the  simple  fact  that  their 
roots  are  numerous,  come  out  from  the  crown  and  are  pure 
white,  or  slightly  tinged  with  yellow.  After  the  plant  has 
lived  through  one  season  and  produced  a  crop  of  fruit  these 
roots  become  dark  brown  or  black,  and  underneath  them  a 
new  set  of  roots  is  produced,  which  appear  very  early  in 
the  season  as  tender  white  roots,  but  which  soon  become 
wiry  and  yellowish. 

In  selecting  plants  for  propagation,  such  as  starting  a 
new  plantation,  care  must  be  exercised  to  secure  only 
those  plants  with  the  light  colored  roots  close  to  the  crown 
and  from  which  there  are  no  tough,  wiry,  dark  colored 
roots.  In  this  connection  it  is  a  distinct  advantage  to 
secure  plants  from  those  which  are  known  to  produce  good 
crops  of  fruits.  There  is  strong  tendency  on  the  part  of 
plants  to  inherit  more  or  less  of  the  fruiting  habit  of  their 
ancestors,  and  plants  secured  from  fields  which  have  been 
given  thorough  care  and  which  have  produced  large  crops 
of  fruit,  are  far  better  to  use  than  those  from  plantations 
which  have  been  neglected  and  which,  as  a  consequence, 
have  produced  small  crops  of  fruit. 

In  preparing  to  plant  out  a  strawberry  bed,  it  pays  well 
to  obtain  the  plants  direct  from  the  field  of  some  grower 
who  maintains  a  breeding  bed,  where  the  plants  are  grown 
primarily  for  the  production  of  new  plants,  and  from  which 
the  fruiting  habit  is  well  known.  In  case  such  cannot  be 
done,  it  will  pay  to  maintain  such  a  patch  in  your  own 
field  where  the  plants  can  be  given  thorough  care,  and 
where  each  mother  plant  can  be  watched  in  its  fruit  pro- 
duction. There  will  be  found  a  marked  difference  in  the 
fruitfulness  of  each  individual  plant  in  a  field.  Some  will 
make  a  large  crop  of  large  fruits,  some  will  make  a  large 
crop  of  small  fruits,  and  others  may  be  entirely  barren. 
Those  plants  which  are  least  desirable  in  their  fruiting 
habits  should  be  chopped  out  of  the  propagation  bed,  so 
that  their  offspring  will  be  eliminated  in  the  future  plan- 
tations. 

(8) 


226  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Soils  and  Locations 

The  strawberry  will  thvive  in  almost  any  soil  and  in 
almost  any  location.  It  grows  thriftily  in  the  sandy  loams 
of  the  South  and  extreme  North,  it  grows  equally  well  in 
the  rocky  clays  of  the  Ozark  Mountains,  it  thrives  in  the 
heavy  clays  of  the  Middle  West,  and  equally  as  well  in  the 
volcanic  ash  of  the  inter-mountain  valleys  of  the  far  West. 
It  might  be  safe  to  say  that  the  strawberry  will  thrive  in 
.any  soil  that  is  not  a  clean  dry  sand  or  water-logged  peat 
or  clay,  and  any  soil  that  will  produce  good  crops  of  any 
of  the  ordinary  garden  vegetables  will  be  adapted  to  the 
strawberry.  It  is  likewise  adapted  to  any  location  as  re- 
gards the  exposure  to  the  sun  and  prevailing  winds.  And 
there  are  varieties  and  strains  of  varieties  which  are 
adapted  to  locations  in  the  Southern  states  or  Northern 
states,  and  to  the  Atlantic  coast  sections  as  well  as  Cali- 
'fornia  and  the  Puget  Sound  country. 

But  whatever  the  soil  or  location  the  strawberry  will  do 
its  best  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  available  fertility 
in  the  soil  upon  which  it  is  growing.  The  soil  need  not  be 
especially  deep,  as  the  strawberry  is  a  shallow  rooting  crop, 
but  it  does  need  to  be  abundantly  fertile.  Any  additional 
care  that  is  taken  to  enrich  the  soil  before  planting  out  a 
strawberry  bed  will  be  well  repaid  with  the  increased 
amount  of  fruit  which  it  will  produce.  On  this  account  it 
is  frequently  advised  that  the  plants  are  .most  productive' 
on  new  lands.  Lands  from  which  the  native  timber  has 
just  been  removed,  and  in  which  there  is  an  abundant  sup- 
ply of  leaf  mould  to  be  turned  under,  is  usually  considered 
the  best  for  strawberries.  But  this  is  no  doubt  only  be- 
cause the  natural  fertility  of  such  soils  has  not  been  ex- 
hausted by  over  cropping.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  old 
fields  which  have  been  in  cultivation  for  many  years  can, 
with  proper  care  in  fertilizing  and  preparing  the  ground, 
be  made  to  produce  as  large  and  fine  crops  of  berries  as 
the  virgin  fields. 

The  choice  of  slope  on  which  a  plantation  is  to  be  made 
depends  upon  the  objects  to  be  sought.  A  southern  slope 
is  usually  warmer  and  produces  earlier  berries,  while  one 


Preparing  the  Land  227 

sloping  to  the  north  will  be  later  and  the  berries  will  be 
slightly  less  highly  colored.  In  those  sections  where  the 
summers  are  hot  and  dry  it  will  be  an  advantage  to  use 
the  northern  slopes  for  the  strawberry  plantation,  on  ac- 
count of  the  greater  moisture  which  will  be  retained  in  the 
soils  of  such  locations.  But  if  means  are  at  hand  for  irri- 
gating the  plantations  such  differences  are  of  little  value. 
The  strawberry  needs  an  abundant  supply  of  moisture 
throughout  the  entire  growing  season.  This  is  because  of 
its  shallow  rooting  habit.  In  dry  summers  it  is 'not  infre- 
quent to  find  the  strawberry  plants  in  a  dormant  condi- 
tion and  most  of  the  foliage  dead  by  midsummer,  only  to 
revive  and  possibly  produce  a  second  crop  of  fruit  after 
the  late  summer  rains  soak  up  the  soil. 

In  the  fall  of  1910  this  character  prevailed  over  the 
greater  portion  of  the  country  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. The  early  portion  of  the  summer  was  dry  and  in 
August  an  abundance  of  rain  came,  soaking  up  the  soil  and 
putting  new  life  into  the  strawberry  fields,  with  the  result 
that  in  September  and  October  many  persons  were  har-^ 
vesting  a  second  crcp  of  berries,  which  were  practically  as 
good  as  the  early  spring  crop.  In  the  irrigated  sections 
of  the  West  many  berry  growers  make  a  specialty  of  ob- 
taining a  second  crop  of  berries,  which  they  can  do  with 
ease  when  they  understand  how  to  handle  the  irrigation 
water  and  throw  the  plants  into  a  dormant  condition  early 
in  the  summer.  Then  by  applying  the  water  again  after 
the  plants  have  had  a  short  rest,  they  will  immediately 
come  into  bloom  and  produce  a  second  crop.  In  the  mild 
climate  of  California,  where  strawberries  can  be  kept  in 
growing  condition  throughout  the  entire  year,  crops  of 
fruit  can  be  had  almost  every  day. 

Preparing  the  Land 

Because  of  the  adaptability  of  the  strawberry  to  a  va- 
riety of  conditions  it  will  grow  and  produce  remarkably 
good  crops  in  soils  which  have  been  given  very  poor  prep- 
aration. But  like  every  other  cultivated  crop  it  responds  to 
good  cultivation,  and  when  the  soil  is  put  in  the  best  pos- 


228  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

sible   condition   the   strawberry  will  produce   its   best  and 
most  profitable  crops. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  land  the  drainage  of  the  soil 
needs  to  be  considered,  for  if  not  naturally  well  drained 
tile  should  be  put  in  so  as  to  prevent  water  standing  on  the 
land  and  to  promote  the  aeration  of  the  soil.  But  if  drain- 
ing is  not  a  necessity,  the  question  of  fertility  of  the  soil 
will  be  of  first  importance.  Barnyard  manure  is  by  far 
the  best  fertilizer  to  apply  to  land  which  is  to  be  planted 
to  strawberries.  This  is  so  because  it  not  only  adds  to 
the  elements  of  fertility,  but  it  also  adds  organic  matter 
that  will  be  converted  into  humus  to  improve  the  tilth  of 
the  soil,  and  promote  a  better  general  physical  condition. 
This  manure  should  be  applied  as  fast  as  it  is  made,  as 
then  it  contains  the  maximum  of  fertility  and  will  be  more 
nearly  free  from  the  white  grub,  which  causes  such  serious 
damage  to  strawberry  beds  by  eating  off  the  roots  of  the 
plants. 

The  amount  of  manure  which  needs  to  be  applied  to 
the  soil  will  depend  on  the  general  fertility,  but  ten  or  fif- 
teen big  wagon  loads  to  each  acre  will  not  be  too  much  for 
the  average  land.  Distribute  the  manure  with  a  manure 
spreader,  as  then  it  will  be  applied  in  a  thin,  even  coat  over 
the  land,  and  can  be  applied  more  quickly  than  by  any 
other  means.  But  in  cases  where  an  abundance  of  stable 
manure  is  not  available,  soil  improving  crops  handled  in 
the  best  manner  for  improving  the  fertility  and  texture  of 
soils  will  be  most  suitable,  and  in  connection  with  them  it 
may  be  necessary  to  add  small  amounts  of  potash  and 
phosphorous  as  the  local  conditions  may  warrant. 

The  manure  or  cover  crops  should  be  plowed  under  as 
earl}'-  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  can  be  worked,  care  being 
exercised  to  secure  a  uniform  depth  throughout.  On  this 
account  a  riding  plow  will  serve  a  better  purpose  in  most 
localities  than  the  usual  walking  plow,  and  especially  in 
the  hands  of  an  inexperienced  plowman.  The  depth  to 
which  the  land  should  be  plowed  will  depend  on  the  gen- 
eral nature  of  the  soil.  In  soils  which  are  naturally  deep, 
the  plowing  can  be  done  deeper  than  in  shallow  soils, 


Time  to  Plant  229 

running  as  much  as  eight  inches.  But  where  the  soils  are 
shallow,  it  may  be  necessary  to  plow  only  half  that  deep. 
In  this  plowing,  when  manure  has  been  added  or  crops 
turned  under,  the  land  needs  to  be  turned  completely  over 
and  then  disced  and  harrowed  so  as  to  thoroughly  incor- 
porate the  manure  with  the  plowed  ground.  This  will 
make  the  soil  spongy,  light  and  friable,  so  that  the  plant 
roots  can  penetrate  to  all  parts  of  it  and  it  will  maintain 
a  more  even  temperature  around  the  roots  than  in  a  com- 
pact soil. 

Rolling  the  land  is  sometimes  a  necessity  and  espe- 
cially on  soils  which  are  naturally  very  heavy.  On  light 
soils  such  as  sandy-loam  clays,  rolling  may  not  be  a  neces- 
sity, although  if  it  is  lumpy  rolling  may  be  an  advantage. 
The  purpose  of  the  rolling  is  to  not  only  break  the  lumps, 
but  to  compact  the  soil  so  that  the  roots  can  quickly  attach 
themselves.  Rolling  compacts  the  soil  and  prevents  exces- 
sive aeration,  which  is  possible  in  very  light  soils.  Aeration 
not  only  dries  out  the  roots,  but  it  has  a  decided  influence 
on  the  development  and  action  of  the  soil  bacteria  and  the 
liberation  of  fertility. 

Time  to  Plant 

The  time  to  plant  the  berries  depends  a  great  deal  on 
where  one  is  located.  In  the  South  planting  may  be  done 
to  best,  advantage  in  the  fall  or  early  winter  months.  In 
the  Middle  West  it  can  be  done  at  any  time  when  the  soil 
is  not  too  dry  or  frozen,  while  in  the  North  spring  plant- 
ing will  give  the  best  results.  The  time  to  plant  will  de- 
pend on  the  season  of  the  year  at  which  the  plants  will 
most  quickly  take  hold  of  the  soil  and  become  established. 
A  strawberry  plant  is  somewhat  like  a  potato.  In  the  fall 
it  has  stored  up  in  its  roots  and  crown  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  food  material  that  can  -be  drawn  upon  to  maintain 
itself  when  conditions  otherwise  may  make  it  impossible  to 
obtain  such  material  from  the  soil. 

Because  of  this  one  may  ask  why  it  is  not  just  as  well 
tc  set  the  plants  as  soon  as  they  become  dormant  in  the 
fall.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  plants  do  not  become  dormant 


230  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

until  the  ground  freezes  so  hard  that  it  is  impossible  for  the 
plant  to  obtain  any  nourishment  on  account  of  its  having 
frozen  solid.  For  this  reason  fall  set  plants  in  the  North 
may  not  have  time  to  form  new  roots  before  the  ground 
freezes  and  may  as  a  consequence  dry  out  and  perish 
during  the  winter. 


A  fine  bunch  of  strawberry  plants  for  setting  out. 

Planting 

Just  before  one  is  ready  to  plant,  the  soil  should  be 
gone  over  and  worked  down  as  smooth  as  can  be  with  a 
harrow  and  this,  followed  with  a  drag,  that  will  leave  it 
perfectly  smooth.  Across  this  then  mark  off  the  row  either 
with  a  cord  or  by  drawing  a  board  having  pegs  driven 
through  in  the  position  each  row  is  to  occupy,  and  so  as  to 


Systems  in  Planting  231 

scratch  lines  across  the  field  in  which  the  berries  are  to 
be  set. 

Where  transplanting  machines,  such  as  are  used  in  some 
of  the  trucking  districts,  can  be  had,  they  may  be  used  for 
transplanting  strawberries  and  are  a  decided  advantage 
in  many  respects.  But  the  one  great  fault  with  the  ma- 
chines is  that  one  cannot  always  set  the  plants  at  the 
proper  depth.  The  strawberry  needs  to  be  set  at  the  depth 
which  will  allow  the  crown  of  the  plant  to  be  flush  with 
the  surface  of  the  land,  neither  too  deep  or  too  high.  If 
set  too  deep,  the  crown  will  fill  with  soil  and  rot  if  the 
weather  is  wet.  If  set  too  high,  the  roots  will  be  exposed 
to  the  sun  and  air,  drying  out  or  weakening  the  plant. 

The  best  way  to  set  strawberries  is  to  get  right  down 
on  one's  hands  and  knees  and  "go  to  it."  If  one  pads  the 
knees  with  a  good  bunch  of  old  sacking  the  work  can  be 
done  with  greater  convenience.  Where  a  machine  carrying 
two  men  is  used  it  is  possible  to  set  8,000  plants  in  a  day, 
and  where  setting  by  hand  a  good  workman  can  set  as 
many  as  1,500  or  even  2,000  plants  in  ten  hours. 

A  dibble  is  necessary  for  making  the  holes  in  hand- 
setting,  and  one  which  is  flat  is  better  than  a  round  one. 
With  it  a  hole  can  be  made  that  will  allow  the  roots  to  be 
spread  out  flat,  in  a  fan  shape,  and  all  of  them  come  in 
contact  with  the  soil.  The  dibble  should  be  grasped  in  the 
right  hand,  thrust  into  the  soil,  and  given  an  outward  shove 
so  as  to  make  an  opening  behind  it.  The  left  hand  then 
grasps  the  plant,  shakes  the  roots  out  loosely  and  shoves 
them  carefully  into  the  hole  so  that  the  crown  comes  ex- 
actly at  the  surface.  The  dibble  is  then  withdrawn  and 
inserted  again  a  couple  of  inches  away  from  the  plant  and 
the  soil  pulled  up  against  the  roots.  A  little  experience 
soon  teaches  one  to  know  how  to  do  the  work  quickly. 

Systems  in  Planting 

There  are  three  systems  of  planting  or  training,  the  hill, 
hedge  row  and  matted  row.  Each  has  its  advantages  and 


232 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


disadvantages,  and  the  method  to  adopt  will  depend  on  the 
conditions  under  which  one  must  work. 

The  hill  system  consists  in  growing  the  plants  in  indi- 
vidual hills  or  stools,  only  one  plant  in  a  place.  Such  a 
practice  makes  a  lot  of  hand  work  necessary  and  limits 
the  size  of  the  field.  There  are  several  ways  of  growing 


Characteristic  appearance  of  an  old  strawberry  plant,  not 
suitable  for  planting.  Black,  wiry  roots  at  the  bottom  and 
new  roots  above  them. 


Winter  Protection  233 

berries  in  hills,  but  they  all  resolve  into  the  matter  of  keep- 
ing all  of  the  runners  off  the  plants  and  making  all  of  the 
strength  of  the  plant  go  into  the  development  of  one  big 
fruit  producing  plant. 

The  hedge  row  is  more  popular  than  the  hill  system,  as 
it  entails  a  smaller  amount  of  labor  and  enables  one  to  set 
the  rows  closer  together.  In  this  system  each  mother  plant 
is  allowed  to  make  two  runners  and  these  are  trained  in 
the  row,  one  going  on  one  side  and  the  second  on  the  other 
side.  When  the  plants  are  set  from  three  to  three  and  one- 
half  feet  apart  and  two  feet  in  the  row,  they  should  stand 
about  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows  after  the  runners  are 
layered. 

This  system  can  be  elaborated  upon  a  little  by  what  is 
sometimes  called  the  "double"  hedge  row.  This  is  essen- 
tially the  same  as  the  hedge  row  except  that  the  rows  are 
wider,  although  there  should  be  fully  six  inches  of  space 
around  each  plant  in  the  rows.  This  system  is  believed 
by  careful  observers  to  produce  the  maximum  amount  of 
large  fruit  that  it  is  possible  to  get  from  a  field.  But  the 
system  entails  a  great  amount  of  hand  work,  a  greater 
amount,  in  fact,  than  the  average  man  can  give  his  fields 
where  a  large  area  is  in  berries. 

The  matted  rows  are  most  popular  among  the  general 
commercial  producers.  The  plants  are  set  in  rows  about 
three  or  three  and  one-half  feet  apart  and  about  two  and 
one-half  feet  apart  in  the  row.  The  plants  are  then  al- 
lowed to  grow  and  make  as  many  runners  as  they  can  to 
fill  up  a  row  about  a  foot  and  a.  half  wide.  Beyond  this 
the  runners  are  kept  cut  off  by  a  little  attachment  that  is 
placed  on  the  sides  of  the  cultivator. 

Winter  .Protection 

Whether  winter  protection,  or  mulching,  is  used  will 
depend  largely  on  one's  location.  When  a  mulch  is.  applied 
it  may  be  done  for  any  one  or  all  of  three  reasons;  first, 
to  keep  the  soil  cool  and  moist  during  the  season;  second, 
to  keep  the  berries  free  from  dirt  during  the  spring  rains, 
and  third,  to  afford  winter  protection..  In  the  Northern 


234  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

sections  the  mulch  is  applied  in  the  fall  as  soon  as  the 
ground  freezes,  in  which  case  it  serves  all  three  purposes, 
but  in  the  South,  where  winter  protection  is  not  needed,  it 
may  not  be  applied  until  in  the  spring,  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  berries  clean.  In  the  most  of  the  Western 
sections  a  mulch  is  not  used  at  all,  as  it-is  not  needed  dur- 
ing the  winter.  Since  rains  seldom  interfere  at  the  time 
the  crop  is  ripening  a  straw  mulch  is  not  necessary  to  keep 
the  berries  from  becoming  spattered. 

Where  a  mulch  is  needed,  straw  serves  the  best  pur- 
pose, although  it  is  open  to  the  objection  of  introducing 
seeds  of  the  grain  and  various  kinds  of  weeds,  which  may 
cause  serious  trouble  in  the  field. 

Where  the  mulch  is  applied  for  a  winter  protection  it 
need  not  go  on  until  the  grpund  has  frozen,  as  it  is  not 
the  object  of  the  mulch  to  keep  the  ground  from  freezing 
but  to  prevent  the  alternation1  of  freezing  and  thawing  sev- 
eral times  during  the  winter.  The  dressing  should  be  ap- 
plied at  the  rate  of  a  couple'  or  three  tons  of  good  straw 
spread  evenly  over  the  rows  of  plants.  In  the  spring 
this  mulch  will  be  so  well  water  soaked  from  the  effects 
of  the  winter  snows  and  rains  that  it  will  rest  heavily  on 
the  plants.  When  the  plants  give  signs  of  renewing  their 
activities  it  is  necessary  to  draw  the  mulch  from  over  the 
berries,  leaving  it  close  up  to  the  sides  of  the  rows  where 
it  will  keep  the  rains  from  spattering  dirt  on  the  ripening 
fruit. 

Renewing 

Strawberry  fields  will  not  be  profitable  producers  after 
they  have  made  two  crops.  This  is  because  the  land  will 
be  more  or  less  choked  with  the  plants  and  new  plants 
cannot  obtain  a  place  to  grow  and  develop,  so  that  the  field 
needs  to  be  renewed.  There  are  a  number  of  ways  in 
which  this  can  be  done  but  one  of  the  simplest  and  most 
effective  means  is  to  plow  out  the  spaces  between  the 
rows,  leaving  a  strip  in  the  middle  about  six  inches  wide. 
Turn  the  soil  away  from  the  rows,  back-furrowing 
towards  the  middle.  Then  make  a  liberal  application 
pf  manure,  throwing  the  most  of  it  into  the  fur- 


Sex  in  Strawberries  235 

row  on  each  side  of  the  row  of  plants.  Work  the  soil  back 
into  the  furrow  with  a  one-horse  cultivator  or  with  a  disc 
from  which  the  inner  discs  have  been  removed.  Then  go 
over  the  field  with  a  hoe  and  cut  out  the  old  plants,  work 
under  the  old  foliage  and  leave  the  remaining  plants  stand- 
ing about  six  inches  apart.  With  such  treatment  as  this 
the  field  will  be  in  fair  condition  to  produce  at  least  one 
more  profitable  crop  and  possibly  two  crops.  By  the  time 
the  field  has  been  in  strawberries  long  enough  to  produce 
three  or  four  crops  of  berries  it  will  have  exhausted  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  or  it  will  have  become  so  toxic  to  the 
roots  that  the  successful  cultivation  can  not  be  continued 
without  putting  the  land  into  other  crops  for  at  least  two 
years.  Should  it  be  the  intention  of  returning  the  same 
field  to  strawberry  production,  these  crops  should  be  of 
such  kinds  as  will  increase  the  fertility  of  the  -land  rather 
than  to  produce  a  large  immediate  cash  return.  For  this 
reason  crops  of  some  legume,  such  as  clover,  cow  peas, 
vetch  or  crimson  clover  are  the  best,  and  the  tops  should 
not  be  mowed  but  turned  under  to  add  to  the  humus  sup- 
ply. 

Another  method  is  to  plow  a  furrow  down  each  side  of 
the  row  turning  the  soil  into  the  middle  and  then  work 
it  back  with  a  spike  tooth  harrow  with  the  teeth 
thrown  slightly  back.  This  will  drag  out  some  of  the 
plants  in  the  rows,  pull  out  the  old  matted  foliage  and 
bury  most  of  the  crowns  of  the  plants.  The  object  of  this 
is  to  encourage  the  plants  to  send  out  a  new  secondary 
crown  and  a  new  lot  of  roots  all  above  the  old  crown.  As 
soon  as  the  new  plants  have  begun  to  appear  the  field 
should  be  worked  over  with  a  hoe  and  the  plants  thinned 
out  and  culled,  leaving  only  the  most  vigorous.  This  work 
is  or  should  be  done  immediately  after  the  fruit  crop  has 
been  gathered,  as  the  plants  will  then  have  the  remainder 
of  the  summer  to  build  up  new  plants  to  produce  the  crop 
of  fruit  for  the  next  summer. 

Sex  in  Strawberries 

Many  persons  who  are  inexperienced  in  the  growing  of 
strawberries  find  that  when  their  first  planting  comes  into 


236 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


producing  age  that  it  may  blossom  very  freely  but  fail  to 
produce  a  single  fruit.  The  reason  for  it  is  that  the  flow- 
ers were  not  "fertilized"  or  pollinated.  Some  varieties  of 
strawberries  do  not  produce  pollen;  they  are  provided  only 
with  pistils,  or  the  female  organs  of  reproduction  and  must 
be  pollinated  by  the  pollen  from  varieties  which  have  per- 
fect or  pollen-producing  flowers.  Varieties  like  Excelsior, 
Klondike  or  Aroma  have  perfect  flowers  and  are  capable 
of  setting  fruit  when  planted  alone,  but  other  varieties 


Strawberry  flowers;  one  on  the  left  is  "staminate"  or 
pollen  producing-;  one  on  the  right  is  imperfect  and  bears  no 
stamens.  It  must  be  planted  with  a  staminate  variety  before 
it  will  be  fruitful. 


such  as  Warfield,  Bubach,  Haverland  or  Sample  are  pis- 
tillate, or  have  imperfect  flowers  and  cannot  set  fruit  them- 
selves. If  one  obtains  plants  from  any  of  the  reliable  deal- 
ers the  sex  of  the  plants  will  be  marked  in  the  catalogue, 
and  one  can  thereby  guard  against  getting  all  pistillate 
plants.  Otherwise  one  will  have  to  inquire  from  persons 
who  know  whether  their  plants  produce  perfect  flowers. 


Varieties  237 

It  is  when  the  plants  come  into  bloom  that  anyone  can 
tell  whether  the  flowers  of  a  given  variety  of  strawberry 
are  perfect  or  imperfect.  The  "staminate,"  "male"  or  per- 
fect flowered  kinds  will  be  found  to  have  a  number  of  yel- 
low or  greenish  yellow  bodies  on  little  short  stems  sur- 
rounding a  central  green,  cone-shaped  body,  which  can  be 
readily  recognized  as  an  immature  strawberry.  These  yel- 
low bodies  are  the  "anthers"  or  pollen  producing  organs, 
and  such  flowers  are  able  to  produce  fruit  without  the  ne- 
cessity of  mating  them  with  other  kinds.  But  those  flow- 
ers from  which  the  anthers  are  missing  must  be  planted 
close  to  pollen-producing  kinds  before  there  will  be  any 
fruit  produced. 

Many  of  the  most  desirable  varieties  of  strawberries 
produce  these  imperfect  flowers,  so  that  to  get  a  crop  of 
fruit  they  must  be  mated  with  some  kind  which  will  pro- 
duce an  ample  supply  of  pollen  for  itself  and  for  the  im- 
perfect flowered  kind.  In  setting  out  such  a  plantation  it 
is  found  satisfactory  to  plant  one  row  of  the  perfect  flow- 
ered kind  and  two  rows  of  the  imperfect.  In  this  way 
there  will  be  one  row  of  staminate  plants  between  two  rows 
of  imperfect  flowered  varieties.  The  pollen  which  is  pro- 
duced by  the  stamen  bearing  flowers  will  be  carried  to 
the  non-staminate  kind  by  insects  which  visit  the  flowers. 
The  common  honey  bee  is  the  most  industrious  in  perform- 
ing this  valuable  work,  although  a  number  of  flies  and 
other  kinds  of  insects  no  doubt  help  out.  On  warm  days 
the  wind  may  also  help  out  in  carrying  the  pollen,  as  some 
of  it  is  undoubtedly  blown  from  plant  to  plant  and  row  to 
row,  but  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  with  pistillate 
varieties  it  is  essential  that  the  pollen-producing  sort  be 
one  that  blossoms  at  the  same  time  as  the  staminate  kind. 

Varieties 

The  question  as  to  what  kind  of  strawberries  to  plant 
is  not  easily  answered,  so  far  as  the  home  garden  is  con- 
cerned, although  it  is  somewhat  easier  for  the  commer- 
cial plantation.  In  the  catalogue  of  every  dealer  in  straw- 
berry plants  there  is  a  long  list  of  varieties  with  tempting 


238 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


descriptions  of  the  delicious  fruits  that  makes  one  want  to 
plant  every  kind  listed.  In  the  home  grounds  it  is  well 
worth  while  having  a  list  of  several  varieties,  so  selected 
that  one  can  have  strawberries  from  the  beginning  of  the 


Wide,  matted  rows,  in  a  productive  field. 


season  until  its  very  close,  and  when  the  everbearing  va- 
rieties have  been  well  enough  developed  so  that  one  can 
with  certainty  get  a  second  crop  each  year,  then  those 
kinds  should  be  included.  It  is  well  worth  the  while  to 


Canning  Fruits  and  Vegetables  at  Home  239 

have  several  varieties  in  the  home  ground  and  to  try  some 
of  the  newer  varieties  which  are  being  introduced  from 
time  to  time,  as  they  add  to  the  interest  of  growing  the 
fruit,  even  though  that  particular  variety  may  not  do  so 
very  well. 

For  the  commercial  grower,  and  particularly  the  grower 
in  sections  where  there  are  successful  strawberry  planta- 
tions, it  is  best  to  adopt  those  kinds  which  are  known  to 
be  a  success  in  that  particular  section,  and  on  the  same 
kind  of  soil.  In  all  of  the  large  berry  growing  districts 
some  one  or  two  berries  are  grown  more  extensively  than 
other  kinds.  For  example,  in  the  Southern  states  Klon- 
dike and  Texas  are  the  leading  varieties.  In  the  Ozark 
region  of  Missouii  and  Arkansas  Aroma  is  most  exten- 
sively used,  while  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  Clark's  Seedling 
is  the  leading  commercial  variety.  In  every  section,  how- 
ever, there  are  a  great  number  of  other  kinds,  although 
there  will  usually  be  one  or  possibly  two  leading  sorts. 

Every  commercial  berry  grower  should  have  a  trial 
grounds  on  which  he  can  test  new  varieties.  Some  kind 
quite  different  from  what  he  is  growing  may  produce  great- 
er quantities  of  fruit,  or  be  otherwise  more  desirable.  It 
is  not  necessary  that  such  grounds  be  very  large,  for  a 
little  bed  a  rod  or  so  square  may  be  ample  for  trying  out 
two  or  three  new  sorts  each  year,  and  once  a  start  is  ob- 
tained it  is  easily  possible  to  increase  the  number  of  plants 
if  one  is  so  inclined. 

Canning  Fruits  and  Vegetables  at  Home 
Saving  a  Waste 

Canning  fruits  and  vegetables  on  the  farm  is  one  way 
of  saving  what  might  otherwise  be  a  large  and  extrava- 
gant waste.  In  nearly  every  fruit  and  truck  growing  sec- 
tion there  is  always  some  fruit  or  vegetable,  in  large  or 
small  amounts,  which  cannot  be  sold  at  a  profit  while  fresh. 
When  this  is  placed  in  cans  and  properly  sterilized,  sealed 
and  labeled,  it  can  be  sold  in  the  market  at  a  profit  above 
what  it  would  have  had  it  been  sold  fresh. 


240  The  Fru it-Growers  Guide-Book 

On  the  average  farm  zn  abundance  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables can  be  had  during  the  summer  season,  but  when 
winter  comes  these  delicious  and  wholesome  products  are 
absent  from  the  family  table.  If  they  are  present  it  too 
often  happens  that  they  have  been  obtained  from  a  store 
in  the  nearest  town.  These  goods  are  often  very  poor  sub- 
stitutes for  the  products  which  can  be  canned  at  home, 
and  especially  when  the  cheaper  grades  are  purchased. 
The  average  farmer  frequently  dries  fruits,  and  possibly 
also  some  kinds  of  vegetables  for  winter  use,  but  aside 
from  these  there  is  little  for  the  home  table  and  nothing 
for  the  market.  This  is  largely  for  the  reason  that  they 
believe  it  is  impossible  or  difficult  to  can  fruits  and  vege- 
tables in  such  a  way  that  they  will  keep  in  perfect  condi- 
tion without  the  use  of  mysterious  chemicals  or  elaborate 
and  expensive  canning  machinery.  This  is  a  mistake,  for 
it  is  just  as  easy  to  can  vegetables  such  as  corn,  peas  and 
beans  as  it  is  to  can  peaches,  plums  or  cherries. 

Every  fruit  and  vegetable  grower  has  had  the  experience 
of  trying  to  sell  produce  at  a  profit  when  the  market  was 
so  glutted  that  a  price  sufficient  to  pay  for  hauling  to  town 
could  hardly  be  obtained.  This  is  especially  the  case  when 
the  produce  was  being  placed  on  the  local  markets.  It  is 
under  such  conditions  as  this  that  it  pays  and  pays  well  to 
have  a  little  canning  outfit  and  put  up  the  produce  in  tin  or 
glass  cans  to  be  sold  during  the  winter  months.  Outfits  can 
be  had  which  will  fit  the  needs  of  anyone  who  wants  to  can 
either  vegetables  or  fruits,  and  in  any  capacity  from  a 
dozen  cans  to  several  hundred  cans  a  day.  The  process 
is  simple,  and  one  which  can  be  done  by  any  farmer  or 
farmer's  wife. 

There  is  only  one  secret  to  the  commercial  canning  pro- 
cess. It  is  nothing  mysterious  or  difficult,  as  so  many  per- 
sons believe.  It  is  simply  the  careful  observance  of  clean- 
liness and  thorough  sterilization  of  every  can.  Nothing 
more  enters  into  the  secret  of  canning.  It  takes  no  chem- 
icals whatever,  and  the  process  is  so  simple  that  it  can  be 
done  with  success  in  any  kitchen,  or  even  out  of  doors 
under  the  shade  of  a  tree.  On  account  of  the  simplicity 


Canning  Fruits  and  Vegetables  at  Home 


241 


of  the  process  there  is  no  reason  for  a  farmer  hauling  his 
vegetables  or  fruit  to  the  railroad  and  shipping  to  a  dis- 
tant canning  factory,  as  then  the  farmer  does  most  of  the, 
work  and  the  cannery  gets  the  money.  By  canning  the 
vegetables  at  home  the  farmer  can  sell  his  finished  product 
at  the  same  price  as  the  large  canner  and  make  a  profit  on 
his  goods.  If  shipped  to  a  cannery  this  profit  would  have 
been  divided  between  the  transportation  company,  the 
canner,  the  jobber  and  sometimes  even  the  retailer. 


A  portable  canning  outfit  is  handy  for  home  use. 


Cleanliness  is  of  first  importance  in  canning,  as  filth  of 
all  kinds  is  full  of  germs  of  disease  and  organisms  which 
render  it  difficult  to  make  the  product  "keep"  after  it  is 
canned.  It  is  essential  and  almost  indispensable  that  an 
abundance  of  clean,  pure  water  be  available  in  the  kitchen 
or  building  in  which  the  canning  is  being  done,  and  so 
much  more  convenient  if  this  water  is  under  pressure  and 


242  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

obtained  by  simply  opening  a  valve.  All  of  the  produce 
can  then  be  washed  free  from  any  dust  that  may  be  cling- 
ing to  it  and  can  also  be  more  readily  cleaned  of  any  spots 
of  rot  which  may  be  on  it.  To  have  the  fruit  perfectly 
clean  and  to  handle  it  with  clean  tools  and  put  it  in  clean 
cans  and  sterilize  in  clean  vessels  makes  the  operation  of 
canning  very  much  easier  and  safer  than  if  the  cleanliness 
is  neglected.  Perfectly  clean  products  will  sell  for  a  better 
price  than  that  which  is  put  up  in  a  shiftless,  "don't  care" 
fashion. 

Sterilization 

The  reason  for  so  much  fruit  spoiling  after  it  is  canned 
is  due  entirely  to  the  lack  of  perfect  sterilization  of  the 
cans  after  being  filled.  Some  products  can  be  placed  in 
cans  and- sterilized  by  cooking  for  just  a  few  minutes  while 
others  may  require  prolonged  cooking.  This  cooking  is 
done  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  organisms  which 
cause  the  products  to  "spoil."  These  organisms  are  of 
various  kinds.  Some  of  them  are  the  common  moulds, 
some  are  yeasts  quite  similar  to  the  yeast  which  causes 
bread  to  "rise,"  while  still  others  are  of  the  minute  forms 
of  life  called  "bacteria."  All  of  these  organisms  are  present 
everywhere  all  of  the  time,  and  when  fruits  and  vegetables 
are  harvested  and  prepared  for  market,  or  canning,  they 
are  completely  covered  with  these  extremely  minute  forms 
of  life. 

These  organisms  can  be  killed  by  heat.  On  this  prin- 
ciple rests  the  foundation  of  the  canning  business.  As 
soon  as  one  learns  how  to  cook  their  produce  in  air  tight 
vessels  so  that  all  of  these  organisms  are  killed,  then  the. 
contents  of  the  can  will  keep  in  perfect  condition  until  air 
containing  the  spores  of  these  organisms  is  admitted.  Per- 
fect sterilization  can  be  had  by  enclosing  the  produce  in 
clean  jars  or  cans  and  then  submitting  them  to  heat  of 
sufficient  temperature  for  a  long  enough  time  to  destroy 
all  of  these  organisms.  Sterilization  is  readily  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  boiling  water.  In  localities  where 
water  boils  at  nearly  212  degrees  Fahrenheit  most  of  the 


Processing  243 

ordinary  forms  of  ferment  organisms  are  killed  at  the  boil- 
ing point  of  water.  But  the  spores  or  resting  stage  of 
these  organisms  will  not  be  killed  at  that  temperature,  so 
that  it  is  necessary  to  do  one  or  all  of  three  things:  in- 
crease the  length  of  time  of  the  cooking  process,  increase 
the  boiling  point  by  increasing  the  steam  pressure,  or  by 
repeated  cooking  and  cooling.  In  the  ordinary  process  of 
boiling  some  kinds  of  organisms  may  not  be  killed  by  be- 
ing subjected  to  that  temperature  for  just  a  few  minutes, 
whereas  if  the  temperature  is  maintained  for  some  time 
they  are  killed. 

Boiling  Repeatedly 

By  boiling,  all  of  the  living  organisms  will  be  killed  and 
then  by  allowing  the  product  to  cool,  any  of  the  spores 
which  remain  will  germinate,  so  that  a  second  boiling  in 
the  course  of  twenty-four  hours  will  kill  the  second  crop 
and  leave  the  contents  in  practically  a  sterile  condition,  al- 
though a  third  boiling  may  be  necessary  to  make  absolutely 
certain.  Repeated  boilings  in  this  manner  are  hardly  nec- 
essary with  the  usual  forms  of  garden  produce  when  the 
boiling  point  of  water  is  nearly  212  degrees.  But  when 
the  boiling  point  falls  as  low  as  205  degrees  or  less,  as  it 
does  at  high  altitudes,  then  the  repeated  boiling  is  neces- 
sary unless  the  cooking  can  be  done  in  a  steam  tight  vessel 
where  the  steam  pressure  can  be  increased,  or  else  by 
keeping  the  produce  at  the  boiling  point  a  number  of  hours. 

Processing 

This  cooking  through  which  the  produce  must  go  in 
order  to  make  it  keep  is  known  among  canners  as  "pro- 
cessing," although  its  only  meaning  is  thorough  cooking 
in  order  to  destroy  all  germs  of  fermentation  and  decay. 

This  work  can  be  very  effectually  done  in  open  kettles 
in  the  home  pr  small  factory,  although  for  rapid  work  and 
in  large  establishments  it  is  an  advantage  for  some  kinds 
of  produce  to  have  steam  tight  compartments  in  which  the 
sterilization  can  be  done  at  a  temperature  higher  than  the 
boiling  point  of  water  in  an  open  vessel. 


244  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Home  Outfits  Are  Simple 

The  canning  machinery  which  is'on  the  market  for  the 
use  of  farmers  and  persons  who  expect  to  pack  only  a 
small  amount  of  produce  are  very  simple.  They  consist 
of  a  heating  device,  usually  a  sheet  iron  stove  or  furnace, 
on  which  is  a  tank  of  water.  Into  this  tank  is  immersed 
a  frame-like  affair  holding  the  filled  cans  during  the  cook- 
ing process.  Such  simple  outfits  as  these  can  be  purchased 
for  amounts  as  low  as  $10,  while  twice  that  amount  will 
buy  a  very  good  outfit  for  canning  on  a  small  commercial 
basis. 

Accessories 

In  addition  to  a  means  of  cooking,  or  processing  the 
produce,  there  are  a  few  small  tools  which  will  be  needed, 
especially  if  the  canning  is  done  in  ordinary  tins.  These 
are  a  capping  iron,  which  is  a  curved  piece  of  iron  for 
soldering  the  cap  on  the  cans;  and  a  tipping  copper  for 
soldering  up  the  hole  in  the  cap  which  is  left  for  the  escape 
of  the  air  while  the  cans  are  being  exhausted.  There  will 
need  to  be  a  supply  of  sal  amoniac  and  soldering  fluid,  to 
make  it  possible  to  solder  the  cans.  The  sal  amoniac  can 
be  bought  of  the  druggist,  while  the  soldering  fluid  can  be 
made  at  home  by  dissolving  in  muriatic  acid  all  of  the  zinc 
it  will  take. 

Definitions 

Capping  is  a  term  applied  to  the  operation  of  soldering 
the  cap  onto  the  can.  The  cap  is  a  little  circular  piece  of 
tin  rimmed  with  solder  which  fits  over  the  hole  in  the  top^ 
of  the  can.  In  capping,  the  rim  of  the  can  into  which  the 
cap  fits  must  be  absolutely  clean  and  dry.  The  contents 
of  the  can  must  not  be  closer  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of 
the  top,  as  the  cap  must  not  be  soldered  on  if  the  contents 
touch  the  lid.  Put  the  cap  in  place  and  brush  a  little  of 
the  soldering  fluid  around  the  edge.  When  the  capping 
copper  is  passed  around  the  cap  the  solder  around  its  edge 
will  be  melted  and  secure  it  to  the  can. 

Tipping  consists  in  closing  the  little  hole  in  the  center 
of  the  cap.  This  is  done  with  the  tipping  copper,  and  the 


Directions  for  Processing  Asparagus  245 

lid  must  be  wiped  perfectly  dry  and  clean  and  then  wet 
with  a  little  of  the  acid  flux.  Touch  the  hot  copper  to  a 
bit  of  solder  and  then  place  the  melted  drop  over  the  hole 
and  the  job  is  done.  Tipping  is  not  done  until  after  the 
air  in  the  cans  has  been  exhausted  by  a  preliminary  boil- 
ing. 

As  soon  as  the  cans  are  filled  with  the  produce  they  are 
to  contain  they  are  capped  and  placed  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  process  tank  submerged  two-thirds  their  depth  in 
water.  Here  they  are  maintained  for  a  sufficient  length  of 
time  to  thoroughly  heat  the  contents  to  near  the  boil- 
ing point  and  expel  most  of  the  air  in  the  can.  There 
should  be  an  air  space  of  a  quarter  or  half  an  inch 
in  each  of  the  cans  to  allow  for  the  expansion  of  the 
produce  as  it  is  being  processed  and  to  prevent  the  con- 
tents touching  the  top  and  making  trouble  with  the  solder- 
ing that  must  be  done.  As  soon  as  the  cans  are  removed 
from  the  exhaust  they  are  tipped  and  are  ready  for  the  pro- 
cessing operation.  In  this  the  cans  are  immersed  com- 
pletely in  the  boiling  water,  and  if  the  tipping  or  capping 
has  not  been  thoroughly  done,  there  will  be  a  little  stream 
of  bubbles  rise  through  the  lid.  Those  cans  which  leak 
must  be  removed  immediately  and  the  hole  effectually 
closed  before  the  processing  can  be  done  satisfactorily. 
If  the  cans  are  perfectly  air-tight  the  ends  will  be  some- 
what bulged  after  the  processing  is  finished,  on  account  of 
the  expansion  of  the  contents,  but  as  soon  as  cooled  down 
the  ends  will  be  flat. 

Blanching  is  necessary  in  the  canning  of  some  kinds  oi 
vegetables  and  consists  in  doing  what  the  housewife  calls 
"par  boiling."  Where  this  is  necessary  the  blanching  should 
be  done  in  a  separate  tank  from  that  used  for  processing. 
In  a  small  factory  or  the  home  canning  plant  a  large  new 
wash  boiler  makes  the  best  sort  of  vessel  for  this  purpose. 

Directions  for  Processing  Asparagus 

This  is  the  first  vegetable  of  the  season  to  be  canned. 
Cut  it  as  for  the  market,  having  the  stalks  just  a  little 


246  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

shorter  than  will  fill  the  cans.  Wash  it  perfectly  clean 
and  pack  firmly  in  the  cans,  placing  the  tips  all  one  way. 
Asparagus  cans  are  usually  made  square  instead  of  round 
and  open  on  the  side.  This  is  for  convenience  in  filling. 
Exhaust  10  or  15  minutes  and  process  for  20  or  30  minutes. 

Beets 

Small  sized  beets  are  the  best.  Young,  tender  ones  an 
inch  or  less  in  diameter,  with  the  tops  removed,  should  be 
par  boiled  until  the  skin  slips  off.  Remove  all  of  the  skin 
and  pack  firmly  in  cans.  Cover  with  water,  exhaust  and 
process  for  an  hour. 

Lima  Beans 

These  must  be  carefully  hulled  by  hand  and  all  dam- 
aged beans  should  be  culled  out.  -Pack  only  those  which 
are  perfect  in  shape  and  not  too  ripe.  They  loose  their 
flavor  quickly  after  being  shelled  and  on  that  account  need 
to  be  packed  immediately  after  shelling.  Pack  the  cans 
within  a  half  or  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  the  top  as  the 
beans  swell  some;  cover  with  water,  exhaust  ten  minutes 
and  process  for  forty-five  minutes. 

Green  or  Wax  Beans 

String  beans  will  need  to  have  the  strings  removed. 
All  kinds  must  have  the  tips  and  stems  cut  off  and  the 
pods  broken  into  halves  or  smaller  pieces.  Gather  the 
beans  while  they  are  quite  young  so  that  they  will  be  ten- 
der. String  beans  must  be  blanched  for  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes.  Pack  them  tightly  into  the  cans  within  half  or 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  the  top,  cover  with  water  and 
exhaust.  The  processing  will  need  to  cover  a  period  of  an 
hour  of  hard  boiling.  It  must  be  done  very  thoroughly  as 
beans  spoil  very  easily  unless  perfectly  sterilized. 

Corn 

Most  persons  have  difficulty  in  canning  corn  so  that 
it  will  keep.  When  perfectly  sterilized  it  keeps  as  well  as 


Pumpkin  and  Squash  247 

any  vegetable.  The  most  certain  way  to  make  a  success  of 
canning  corn  is  to  process  three  times,  letting  the  cans 
stand  and  cool  for  twenty-four  hours  between  each  cook- 
ing. The  corn  must  be  in  a  milky  stage.  Cut  the  grains 
off  the  cob,  scrape  the  cob  lightly  with  the  back  of  the 
knife  so  as  to  get  all  of  the  milky  portion.  Pack  into  cans 
within  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  the  top  and  fill  nearly 
full  of  water.  Exhaust  for  fifteen  minutes.  Let  cool  for 
twenty-four  hours  and  process  again.  Let  cool  over  night 
and  give  a  third  boiling  of  half  an  hour,  and  it  will  keep 
perfectly. 

Blackberries 

Fruit  should  be  ripe,  but  not  so  soft  that  it  will  mash 
when  handled.  Remove  all  stems.  Pack  firmly  without 
crushing.  Cover  the  berries  with  water,  add  sugar  if  de- 
sired; exhaust  for  three  minutes,  process  for  ten  minutes. 


Cherries 

These  fruits  can  be  quickly  pitted  with  a  machine.  Pack 
solidly  in  syrup  or  water  as  desired,  in  two-pound  cans. 
Exhaust  seven  minutes  and  process  for  twenty  minutes. 


Peas 

Shell  tender  young  peas  and  screen  so  as  to  grade  into 
different  sizes  before  packing.  Blanch  for  five  minutes, 
pouring  them  into  boiling  water.  Remove  and  pack  firmly 
into  cans.  Cover  with  water;  exhaust  for  fifteen  minutes 
and  process  for  one  hour.  Greatest  success  may  be  had 
by  allowing  to  cool  for  twenty-four  hours  and  then  repeat 
the  processing. 

Pumpkin  and  Squash 

Prepare  as  for  immediate  use.  Cook  until  nearly  done 
in  an  open  vessel,  then  pack  in  cans.  Exhaust  for  ten 
minutes  and  process  for  forty  minutes. 


248  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Peaches 

Use  firm,  solid  fruit  that  is  not  too  ripe.  Peel,  cnt  into 
halves  and  remove  the  stones.  Pack  firmly  in  the  caiib  <£iid 
cover  with  syrup  or  water  as  desired.  Exhaust  for  five 
minutes,  process  for  fifteen  minutes.  The  best  grade  of 
fruit  must  be  unbroken  halves.  They  may  be  packed  in 
two,  three  or  ten-pound  cans.  Pie  peaches  are  usually 
packed  in  the  larger  sizes  of  cans. 

Raspberries 

These  are  handled  in  the  same  manner  as  blackberries. 

Tomatoes 

These  have  become  the  most  popular  of  all  kinds  of 
canned  vegetables  and  afford  an  excellent  means  of  bring- 
ing in  an  income  while  the  orchard  is  maturing.  Stone 
is  the  best  variety,  as  the  fruit  retains  its  deep  red  color 
during  the  processing  better  than  most  any  other  variety. 
The  fruit  needs  to  be  clean,  firm  and  well  colored.  Scald 
with  boiling  water  until  the  skin  will  slip  easily.  Remove 
the  skins  and  cut  out  the  hard  stem  end,  being  careful  to 
not  mash  the  fruit  in  handling..  Save  all  of  the  juice  that 
runs  out  of  the  cans.  Cover  with  juice  or  water  if  neces- 
sary. Exhaust  eight  minutes  and  sterilize  for  half  an  hour. 
Do  not  allow  the  fruit  to  stand  after  being  scalded,  as  it 
spoils  very  quickly. 

Varieties  of  Apples,  Peaches,  Pears,  Grapes  to  Plant 

The  following  list  of  varieties  of  fruits  are  from  data 
collected  by  the  horticulturists  of  the  states  named  and 
are  varieties  which  are  considered  as  the  best  for  com- 
mercial plantings  in  the  states  named: 

Alabama 

Apples — Red  June,  Red  Astrachan.  Early  Harvest,  Fam- 
ily, Winesap,  Yellow  Transparent,  Horse,  Yates,  Terry. 


Best  Commercial  Varieties  249 

Grapes — Bunch:  Delaware,  Niagara,  Concord;  Musca- 
dine type:  Eden,  Memory,  Scuppernong. 

Peaches — Greensboro,  Carman,  Hiley,  Family  Favorite, 
Belle,  Elberta,  Salway,  White  Heath. 

Pear — Kieffer. 

Arkansas 

Peaches — Sneed  Triumph,  Carman,  Family  Favorite, 
Early  Crawford,  Champion,  Gen'l  Lee,  Elberta,  Mixon, 
Late  Crawford  Emma,  Matthews,  Beauty,  Picquet's  Late, 
Heath  Cling,  Salway,  Slappy,  Early  Elberta. 

California 

Apples — Newtown,  Bellflower,  Gravenstein,  R.  I.  Green- 
ing, E.  Spitzenburg,  Mo.  Pippin,  Astrachan,  Red  June. 

Grapes — Muscat,  Tokay,  Cornichon,  Thompson,  Em- 
peror, Malaga,  Rose  of  Peru,  Zinfandel,  Sweet  Water, 
Verdal,  Carignane,  Black  Prince,  Alicante,  Sultina. 

Peaches — Muir,  Phillips,  Salway,  Lovell,  E.  Crawford, 
Tuskena,  Foster,  Elberta,  Nichols,  Sellers,  Lemon,  St. 
Johns,  Henrietta,  Mary's  Choice,  Hale,  Alexander. 

Pears — Winter  Nelis,  Seckel,  Easter,  Du  Cornice,  Doy- 
enne, D'Ete,  Clapp's  Favorite,  Glout  Morceau,  Barry 
Comet. 

Colorado 

Apples — Jonathan,  Gano,  Stayman,  Winesap,  Grimes, 
Colorado  Orange,  Wealthy,  Duchess,  Hass,  Rome  Beauty, 
Mamomth  Black  Twig,  White  Winter  Pearmain,  Black 
Ben. 

Grapes — Concord,  Moore's  Early,  Niagara. 

Pears — Bartlett,  Kieffer,  Seckel. 

Peaches — Crawford,  Elberta. 

Iowa 

Apples  —  Yellow  Transparent,  Liveland  Raspberry, 
Charlamoff,  Wealthy,  Anisim,  Hutchins  Red,  Salome, 


Best  Commercial  Varieties  251 

Windsor,  Iowa  Blush,  Tolman  Sweet,  Allen  Choice,  Stay- 
man,  Delicious,  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Grimes,  Jonathan,  Wine- 
sap,  York  Imperial. 

Pears — Fluke,  Bloodgood,  Flemish  Beauty,  Seckel, 
Warner,  Anjou,  Kieffer,  Longworth. 

Peaches — Sneed,  Champion,  Crosby,  Hill  Chilli,  Russel, 
Lone  Tree,  Greensboro. 

Michigan 

Apples — Red  Astrachan,  Duchess,  Wealthy,  Baldwin, 
Golden  Russet,  Red  Canada,  Wagener,  Grimes,  Hubbard- 
ston,  Jonathan,  Maiden's  Blush. 

Grapes — Brighton,  Diamond,  Niagara,  Delaware,  Wor- 
den,  Concord,  Moore. 

Pears — Lawrence,  Kieffer,  Anjou,  Seckel,  Howell,  Bart- 
let,  Clapp's. 

Peaches — Triumph,  Kalamazoo,  Elberta,  Engle,  Dewey. 

Minnesota 

Apples — Duchess,  Hibernal,  Charlamoff,  Patten's  Green- 
ing, Wealthy,  Longfield,  Tetofsky,  Malinda,  Okabena, 
Peerless,  Wolf  River,  McMahon,  Yellow  Transparent. 

Grapes — Beta,  Janesville,  Moore's  Early,  Brighton,  Del- 
aware, Worden,  Agawam,  Concord,  Diamond. 

Missouri 

Apples — Ben  Davis,  Jonathan,  Grimes,  Huntsman,  York, 
Winesap,  Rome  Beauty,  Delicious,  Wealthy,  Early  Har- 
vest, Yellow  Transparent,  Ingram,  Delicious,  Black  Ben, 
Gano,  Stayman. 

Peaches — Champion,  Carman,  Family  Favorite,  Elberta, 
Crosby,  Salway. 

Pears — Kieffer,  Garber,  Duchess,  Anjou,  Clapp's  Favor- 
ite. 

New  York 

Apples — Gravenstein,  Oldenburg,  Mclntosh,  Boiken, 
Northern  Spy,  Spitzenburg. 


252  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Pears — Washington,  Lawrence,  Anjou,  Bartlett. 
Peaches — Carman,    Mountain    Rose,    Crawford,    Mamie 
Ross,  Elberta,  Salway,  Greensboro. 

Northern  New  England 

Apples — Oldenburg,  Gravenstein,  Baldwin  Spy,  Hub- 
bardston,  Stark,  Tolman,  Fameuse,  Wealthy,  Dudley. 

Pears — Angouleme,  Anjou,  Bartlett,  Clapp's,  Lawrence, 
Sheldon,  Vermont  Beauty. 

New  Jersey 

Apples — Early  Harvest,  Early  Ripe,  Red  Astrachan, 
William's,  Starr,  Rambo,  Wealthy,  Maiden's  Blush,  Fall 
Pippin,  Jonathan,  Stayman,  York  Imperial,  Northern  Spy, 
Baldwin,  Mclntosh. 

Grapes — Green  Mountain,  Niagara,  Brighton,  Worden, 
Diamond,  Delaware. 

Peaches — Greensboro,  Hiley,  Carman,  Waddel,  Moun- 
tain Rose,  Early  Crawford,  Niagara,  Elberta,  Salway,  Rare 
Ripe,  Belle  of  Georgia. 

Pears — Kieffer,  La  Conte,  Bartlett,  Clairgeau. 

North  Carolina 

Apples — Red  June,  York,  Stayman,  Winesap,  Grimes, 
Shockley,  Ben  Davis,  Delicious,  Newtown. 

Grapes — Niagara,  Concord,  Delaware,  Scuppernong, 
James. 

Peaches — Greensboro,  Carman,  Salway. 

Pears — Kieffer,  Le  Conte,  Seckel,  Early  Harvest. 

Ohio 

Apples — Yellow  Transparent,  Oldenburg,  Sweet  Bough, 
Maiden's  Blush,  Grime-s,  Jonathan,  Northern  Spy,  Rome 
Beauty,  York,  Hubbardston. 

Grapes — Worden,  Green  Mountain,  Niagara,  Brighton. 


Rules  for  Naming  Fruits  253 

Pears — Wilder,  Bartlett,  Angouleme,  Seckel. 
Peaches — Mountain    Rose,   Greensboro,    Champion,    El- 
berta,  Smock. 

Oregon 

Apples — E.  Spitzenburg,  Yellow  Newtown,  Jonathan, 
Baldwin,  Yellow  Imperial,  'Gravenstein. 

Grapes — Concord,  Niagara,  Tokay,  Malaga,  Muscat. 

Peaches — Alexander,  Crawford,  Foster,  Muir,  Salway, 
Hales'  Early,  Cliny. 

Pears — Bartlett,  Anjou,  Bosc,  Howell,  W.  Nelis,  Corn- 
ice, E.  Beurre. 

Washington,  Idaho  and  Montana 

Apples — Spitzenburg,  Jonathan,  Baldwin,  Wealthy, 
Wagener,  Rome  Beauty,  Winesap,  Delicious,  King  David, 
Winter  Banana,  Gravenstein,  Mclntosh,  Grimes  Golden, 
Arkansas  Black,  White  Winter  Pearmain,  Stayman  Wine- 
sap,  Belleflower. 

Plums — Bradshaw,  Columbia,  Prince  de  Agen,  Italian 
Prince,  Imperial  Gage. 

Peaches — Alexander,  Mountain  Rose,  Foster,  Muir,  Sus- 
quehanna,  Lemon  Cling. 

Cherries — (Sweet)  Napoleon,  Lambert,  Black  Republi- 
can; (sour)  Late  Duke,  May  Duke,  Morello. 

Rules  for  Naming   Fruits 

To  avoid  the  confusion  which  arises  in  naming  new 
varieties  of  fruits  the  American  Pomological  Society 
adopted  the  following  rules,  which  are  to  be  applied  to  all 
new  varieties  of  fruits  as  they  are  introduced,  and  to  the 
renaming  of  old  varieties: 

Rule  I.  No  two  varieties  of  the  same  kind  of  fruit  shall 
bear  the  same  name.  The  name  first  published  shall  be 
the  accepted  and  recognized  name,  except  in  cases  where 
it  has  been  applied  in  violation  of  this  code. 


254  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

(a)  The  term  "kind"  as  herein  used  shall  be  understood 
to  apply  to  those  general  classes  of  fruits  that  are  grouped 
together  in  common  usage  without  regard  to  their  exact 
botanical  relationship;  as  apple,  cherry,  grape,  peach,  plum, 
raspberry,  etc. 

(b)  The  paramount  right  of  the  originator,  discoverer 
or  introducer  of  a  new  variety  to  name  it,  within  the  limi- 
tations of  this  code,  is  recognized  and  emphasized. 

(c)  Where  a  variety  name,  through  long  usage,  has  be- 
come thoroughly  established  in  American  pomological  lit- 
erature for  two   or  more   varieties,  it   should  not  be  dis- 
placed  nor    radically   modified   for    either    sort,   except   in 
cases  where  a  well  known  synonym  can  be  advanced  to  the 
position  of  the  leading  name.     The  several  varieties  bear- 
ing identical  names  should  soon  be  distinguished  by  adding, 
the  name  of  the  author  who  first  described  each  sort,  or  by 
adding  some  other  suitable  distinguishing  term   that  will 
insure  their  identity  in  catalogues  or  discussions. 

(d)  Existing  American  names  of  varieties  which  con- 
flict with  earlier  published  foreign  names  of  the  same  or 
other  varieties,  but  which  have  become  thoroughly  estab- 
lished through  long  usage,  shall  not  be  displaced. 

Rule    II.      The   name   of   a  variety   shall   consist   of  a 
single  word. 

(a)  No  variety  shall  be  named  unless  distinctly  superior 
to  existing  varieties  in  some  important  characteristic  nor 
until  it  has  become   determined  to  perpetuate  it  by  bud 
propagation. 

(b)  In  selecting  names  for  varieties  the  following  points 
should  be  emphasized:     Distinctiveness,  simplicity,  ease  of 
pronunciation  and  spelling,  indication  of  origin  or  parent- 
age. 

(c)  The  spelling  and  pronunciation  of  a  varietal  name 
derived  from  a  personal  or  geographical  name  should  be 
governed  by  the  rules  that  control  the  spelling  and  pro- 
nunciation of  the  name  from  which  it  was  derived. 

(d)  A  variety  imported  from  a  foreign  country  should 
retain  its  foreign  name  subject  only  to  such  modification 


Publication  255 

as  is  necessary  to  conform  to  this  code  or  to  render  it  in- 
telligible in  English. 

(e)  The  name  of  a  person  should  not  be  applied  to  a 
variety  during  his  life  without  his  expressed  consent.    The 
name  of  a  deceased  horticulturist  should  not  be  so  applied 
except   through   formal   action  by  some   competent   horti- 
cultural  body,   preferably   that    with    which    he   was   most 
closely  connected. 

(f)  The  use  of  such  general  terms  as  seedling,  hybrid, 
pippin,  pearmain,  beurre,  rare-ripe,  damson,  etc.,  is  not  ad- 
missable. 

(g)  The  use  of  a  possessive  noun  as  a  name  is  not  ad- 
missable. 

(h)  The  use  of  a  number,  either  singly  or  attached  to  a 
word,  should  be  considered  only  as  a  temporary  expedient 
while  the  variety  is  undergoing  a  preliminary  test. 

(i)  In  applying  the  provisions  of  this  rule  to  an  existing 
varietal  name,  that  has,  through  long  usage,  become  firmly 
imbedded  in  American  pomological  literature,  no  change 
shall  be  made  which  will  involve  loss  of  identity. 

Rule  ITI.  In  the  full  and  formal  citation  of  a  variety 
name,  the  name  of  the  author  who  first  published  it  shall 
be  given. 

Publication 

Rule  IV.  Publication  consists  (1)  in  the  distribution 
of  a  printed  description  of  the  variety  named,  giving  the 
distinguishing  characters  of  fruit,  tree,  etc.,  or  (2)  in  the 
publication  of  a  new  name  for  a  variety  that  is  properly 
described  elsewhere;  such  publication  to  be  made  in  any 
book,  bulletin,  report,  trade  catalogue  or  periodical,  pro- 
viding the  issue  bears  the  date  of  its  publication  and  is 
generally  distributed  among  nurserymen,  fruit  growers  and 
horticulturists;  or  (3)  in  certain  cases  the  general  recog- 
nition of  a  name  for  a  propagated  variety  in  a  community 
for  a  number  of  years  shall  constitute  publication  of  that 
name. 

(a)  In  determining  the  name  of  a  variety  to  which  two 


256  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

or  more  names  have  been  given  in  the  same  publication, 
that  which  stands  first  shall  have  precedence. 

Revision 

Rule  V.  No  properly  published  variety  name  shall  be 
changed  for  any  reason,  except  conflict  with  this  code,  nor 
shall  another  variety  be  substituted  for  that  originally  de- 
scribed thereunder. 


Grafting  and  Budding 

Apples,  pears  and  some  other  fruit  and  ornamental  trees 
are  propagated  by  means  of  grafting.  This  is  done  in 
many  instances  largely  for  the  reason  that  the  kind  to  be 
increased  does  not  come  true  from  seed;  and  when  done  on, 
large  trees,  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  changing  the  kind  of 
fruit  produced  by  the  top  or  to  change  the  shape  of  the 
top.  Where  young  stock  is  grafted,  it  is  generally  done 
by  what  is  known  as  the  "whip  or  tongue,"  and  as  this  is 
the  most  common  style  of  grafting  and  most  applicable  to 
the  widest  range  of  uses,  it  will  be  described.  Where  large 
trees  are  to  be  worked  over,  the  work  is  done  by  what  is 
known  as  "cleft  grafting"  and  will  be  described  under  that 
head. 

In  grafting  two  things  are  necessary,  first  a  lot  of  small 
roots  of  the  apple.  The  roots  most  commonly  used  are 
from  the  one-year-old  seedling  trees.  Next  is  a  quan- 
tity of  "scions"  or  twigs  of  the  current  year's  growth  from 
the  trees  that  it  is  desired  to  increase.  These  scions 
should  be  free  from  the  old  wood  and  taken  from  the  trees 
after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  but  before  the  wood  freezes. 
They  may  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time  till  ready  to  use 
by  packing  them  in  damp  sand  or  green  sawdust  in  a  cool 
cellar,  or  even  packed  in  the  soil  out  of  doors  and  covered 
so  as  not  to  freeze. 

The  grafting  is  best  done  in  a  cool  living  room  or  in  a 
cellar  where  the  air  is  moist.  It  can  be  done  at  any  time 
during  the  winter,  but  best  at  sometime  after  January  and 


Making  the  Grafts  257 

at  least  a  month  before  planting  time.     February  is  gen- 
erally the  most  convenient  time  to  do  the  work. 


Making  the  Grafts 

If  the  twigs  are  long  enough  make  the  scions  about  six 
inches  long,  but  they  may  be  made  shorter  if  necessary. 
On  the  butt  end  of  the  scion  make  a  sloping  cut  an  inch 
or  an  inch  and  a  half  long.  Use  a  sharp  knife  and  make 
the  cut  smooth  and  uniform.  On  the  cut  surface,  about 
one-third  of  the  way  from  the  end  of  the  twig,  make  a 
slit  or  tongue  by  a  downward  cut,  from  one-half  to  an  inch 
deep  along  the  grain  of  the  wood;  then  cut  off  at  the 
desired  length. 

Next  take  one  of  the  long  seedling  roots  and  follow  the 
same  process.  Begin  at  the  crown  (the  part  of  the  root 
that  was  just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground)  and  form  a 
sloping  cut,  being  careful  that  it  is  of  the  same  slope  as 
that  of  the  scion;  and  make  the  tongue  in  the  same  way 
the  same  distance  from  the  end  of  the  root  as  in  the  scion. 
This  done,  cut  the  root  off,  having  the  piece  about  three 
inches  long  and  repeating  the  process  until  the  entire  root 
has  been  used.  If  the  seedlings  have  made  a  good  growth 
and  the  soil  has  been  porous  enough  to  let  them  go  down, 
each  root  will  usually  make  two  and  sometimes  three 
pieces. 

Join  the  root  and  scion  by  pressing  the  two  sloping 
surfaces  together  and  forcing  the  tongues  to  interlock. 
At  this  point  the  main  thing  to  be  observed  is  to  watch  one 
side  and  to  see  that  the  bark  line  of  the  scion,  comes  in 
contact  with  the  bark  line  of  the  root.  This  is  highly  im- 
portant, for  here  is  where  the  two  are  to  grow  together. 
The  scion  and  root  may  not  be  of  the  same  thickness;  in 
fact,  seldom  are,  but  this  makes  no  difference  if  the  above 
instructions  are  followed.  After  pressing  the  two  pieces 
together,  it  will  be  necessary  to  wrap  the  graft  at  the 
point  of  union  with  No.  18  or  20  knitting  cotton.  Lay  the 
thread  on  the  wood  near  the  end  of  the  cut,  wind  two  or 

(9) 


258 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


three  times  around  at  this  place,  at  the  same  time  pressing 
the  parts  together  with  thumb  and  finger.    Next,  work  the 


No.  2 

No.  1.  Apple  stock  for  graft- 
ing; a  is  a  No.  1  apple  root  of 
one  season's  growth  from  seed. 
This  is  cut  into  several  sec- 
tions as  at  b,  c  and  d;  c  is  the 
seedling-  top  and  d  the  tip  of 
the  root,  both  of  which  are  to 
be  discarded.  The  sections  at 
b  are  the  best  for  grafting. 

No.  2.  The  apple  graft;  a  is 
the  scion;  b  is  the  stock;  c 
how  they  are  put  together;  d  is  the  finished  graft, 


No.  1 


shows 

ready  for  planting. 


thread  up  to  the  other  end  of  the  cut  by  winding  it  two  or 
three  times  around  the  graft  during  the  distance,  then  two 


Making  the  Grafts  259 

or  three  times  around  the  other  end  of  the  cut  as  in  the  be- 
ginning.      Fasten    the    end    of    the    thread   by    drawing    it 


Long  and  short  twigs  of  apple  before  being  made  into 
scions;  a,  short  twigs  from  an  old  tree  will  make  only  one 
scion  each  as  at  b;  c,  long  twigs  from  thrifty  trees;  d,  the 
same  twigs  made  into  scions. 


260 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


down  in  the  cut  and,  by  a  sharp  jerk,  break  it  off.  This 
completes  the  process.  The  finished  graft  should  be  from 
seven  to  nine  inches  long.  The  old  way  was  to  wax  the 
point  of  union  or  wrap  with  waxed  thread  or  strips  of  cloth 
but  this  is  not  necessary. 


The  right  and  wrong  way  to  plant  a  graft.  Holes  are 
made  with  a  dibber  and  grafts  dropped  in.  If  soil  is  packed 
down  with  the  heel  it  is  liable  to  leave  an  open  space  around 
the  root,  as  at  b.  The  better  way  is  to  close  the  hole  with 
the  dibber,  as  at  c.  Soil  then  packed  tight  against  the  root, 
as  at  d. 


Pack  the  grafts  in  bundles  of  fifty  to  a  hundred  each 
and  store  in  green  sawdust  or  moist  sand  where  they  are 
to  remain  until  planting  time.  While  packed  in  the  saw- 
dust the  cut  surfaces  which  have  been  joined  together  will 
actually  begin  to  heal  over  and  partially  unite,  and  on  this 
account  the  grafts  should  not  be  disturbed  until  they  are 
taken  out  to  plant.  Keep  the  box  of  grafts  in  a  moderately 
cool  room  or  a  cellar,  or  bury  them  in  the  soil  out  of  doors 


Planting 


261 


where  they  will  not  freeze.  If  the  grafts  are  buried  in 
sand  it  may  have  to  be  sprinkled  and  moistened  several 
times  before  spring,  and  will  need  to  be  watched. 


•  I   / 
No.    4 


No.  3.  A  pear  graft;  a  shows 
the  seedling  root  and  scion;  b 
is  the  two  pieces  fastened  to- 
gether, and  c  shows  the  waxed 
graft  ready  for  planting. 

No.  4.  This  figure  shows  the 
right  way  to  shape  the  scions 
for  cleft  grafting. 


Planting 

As  soon  as  the  ground  will  do  to  work  in  the  spring 
select  a  place  where  the  soil  is  moderately  rich,  but  not 


262  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

extremely  so,  on  which  to  plant  the  grafts.  Plow  the  land 
deeply  and  otherwise  prepare  as  for  a  garden  spot.  The 
rows  need  not  be  long  but  should  be  perfectly  straight. 
To  get  them  straight  stretch  a  string  across  the  plot.  The 
rows  are  to  be  four  feet  apart,  laid  off  with  a  single  shovel 
plow.  With  an  old  hoe  handle  which  has  been  sharpened 
to  a  point,  with  a  long  slope,  go  along  and  punch  holes 
in  the  ground  about  eight  inches  or  a  foot  apart,  withdraw- 
ing the  pole  carefully  and  with  many  side  movements  so  the 
soil  will  not  fall  in.  Plant  the  grafts  deeply.  After  plac- 
ing them  in  the  holes,  see  that  only  one  or  two  buds  of  the 
scion  are  left  above  the  ground.  This  will  make  it  neces- 
sary to  have  the  ground  plowed  deeply.  Be  sure  to  press 
the  soil  up  closely  against  the  roots  of  the  grafts.  This  is 
best  done  with  a  dibber  or  short  stick  which  is  forced  into 
the  soil  beside  the  grafts  and  crowds  the  soil  up  against 
them.  The  grafts  cannot  grow  if  air  spaces  are  left  around 
the  roots.  Give  the  little  trees  good  culture,  including 
two  or  three  hoeings  during  the  summer,  and  they  will 
reward  their  owner  with  a  vigorous  growth. 

At  the  end  of  the  summer  the  trees  will  be  "one-year- 
old"  trees  of  the  nurseryman,  and  can  be  dug  as  soon  as 
the  leaves  have  fallen  and  ready  to  be  transplanted  to  the 
orchard.  If  it  is  desired  to  use  two-year-old  trees,  they 
can  be  left  in  the  nursery  for  another  summer; 

There  are  special  implements  on  the  market  for  wrap- 
ping the  grafts,  planting  the  grafts  and  digging  the  trees. 
These  are  of  great  assistance  in  saving  time  and  labor 
where  large  quantities  of  trees  are  grown. 

Cleft   Graft 

Cleft  grafting  can  be  done  on  any  sort  of  fruit  tree  and 
is  used  mostly  for  the  purpose  of  working  over  old 
trees  which  are  beyond  the  condition  in  which  they  can 
be  worked  by  the  ordinary  whip  or  tongue  graft.  It  is  the 
style  of  grafting  that  is  especially  useful  where  one  has  a 
few  trees  that  have  reached  the  bearing  age  and  are  found 
to  be  unsatisfactory  either  in  kind  or  in  quality  of  fruit. 
It  is  the  style  of  grafting  that  will  allow  one  to  work  two 


Cleft  Graft 


263 


This  shows  a  good  way  to  top  work  a  tree.     Only  about 
half  the  branches  are  grafted  at  one  time. 


264  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

or  more  varieties  of  apples  on  one  tree.  In  fact  as  many 
varieties  as  there  are  branches  may  be  top-grafted  on  a 
single  tree.  It  is  a  matter  of  great  curiosity  to  see  apples 
of  different  colors  and  sizes  growing  on  the  same  limbs, 
but  it  is  easily  done  by  grafting  scions  of  the  desired  va- 
rieties on  bearing  trees.  New  varieties  may  be  oftentimes 
hurried  into  bearing  by  working  them  on  the  branches  of 
trees  that  have  reached  bearing  age. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  collect  the  scions  for  top-grafting 
early  in  the  winter  before  freezing  weather  and  store  them 
in  the  manner  described  above.  The  grafting  is  done  early 
in  the  spring  at  the  time  the  leaf  buds  are  beginning  to 
open.  At  this  time  the  sap  in  the  tree  to  be  top-worked 
will  be  flowing  freely,  but  the  scion  to  be  inserted  upon  it 
should  be  perfectly  dormant  in  a  cellar. 

To  do  the  work,  saw  off  the  old  branch,  if  as  much  as 
an  inch  in  diameter,  or  even  the  body  of  the  tree  if  not 
over  four  inches  thick,  and  split  down  through  the  center 
with  a  hatchet  or  knife.  The  scion  (which  is  the  same 
kind  of, wood  as  described  for  other  scions)  should  be  only 
four  or  five 'inches  long,  and  at  the  butt  end  whittle  oil 
both  sides  to  a  wedge  shape.  In  making  the  wedge  the 
slope  must  be  long  and  uniform,  care  being  taken  to  whit- 
tle about  the  same  amount  of  wood  from  each  side.  Pry 
open  the  split  in  the  trunk  or  branch  to  be  grafted  and 
carefully  insert 'the  scion  so  that  the  bark  on  one  side  will 
be  exactly  in. contact  with  the  inner  part  of  the  growing 
bark  of  the  old  stub  or  stump.  This  is  extremely  import- 
ant, for  here  is  the  place  where  they  are  to  grow  together, 
and  they  cannot  do  so  if  the  bark  of  one  piece  is  not  in 
line  with  the  bark  of  the  other.  If  the  old  branch  or  trunk 
of  the  tree  is  large  enough,  that  is,  thick  enough,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  use  two  scions,  one  on  either  side  of  the  stump, 
as  this  will  double  the  chances  for  success.  If  the  grafted 
stump  be  as  much  as  three  inches  thick,  a  wedge  for  the 
purpose  should  be  made  and  driven  down  in  the  center  of 
the  cleft  just  far  enough  to  prevent  too  great  pressure  on 
the  scions  and  yet  not  far  enough  to  cause  them  to  be 
loose.  After  driving  down  to  the  proper  point,  the  wedge 


Budding      ,  265 

may  be  broken  off.  When  the  scions  and  wedges  are  in 
place  it  will  be  necessary  to  cover  all  of  the  cut  surfaces 
with  soft  grafting  wax. 

The  wax  may  be  melted  in  a  tin  pan  at  the  house  and 
carried  to  the  orchard  if  not  too  far  away,  or  the  pan  may 
be  set  on  a  hot  stone  and  will  then  stay  melted  for  a  con- 
siderable time.  The  melted  wax  can  be  most  easily 
spread  over  the  cut  surfaces  of  the  graft  by  means  of  a 
little  paddle,  and  needs  to  be  spread  all  over  the  cut 
surfaces  of  the  s'cion  and  stub,  although  it  is  not  necessary 
that  the  bark  be  also  waxed.  This  waxing  is  done  to  pre- 
vent the  cut  surfaces  from  drying  out  and  thereby  prevent- 
ing the  scion  and  stub  from  uniting.  The  wax  need  not  be 
disturbed  at  any  time  thereafter. 

If  both  or  all  the  scions  inserted  on  a  stub  should  grow, 
cut  all  of  them  off  but  one.  Only  one  scion  should  be 
allowed  to  grow,  as  more  than  one  at  a  place  will  cause  a 
bad  fork  that  will  split  easily. 

Budding 

Budding  is  an  operation  done  upon  any  woody  plant 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing  some  desirable  variety  that 
cannot  be  obtained  from  seed.  Its  object  is  identical  with 
grafting",  and  differs  from  it  in  that  in  grafting  a  scion 
bearing  several  buds  is  used,  while  in  budding  the  scion 
consists  of  but  one  bud,  with  a  small  bit  of  the  bark  to 
which  it  is  attached.  All  of  our  tree  fruits  can  be  repro- 
duced with  more  or  less  ease  by  budding,  while  the  peach 
is  propagated  in  this  manner  exclusively,  as  it  does  not 
unite  very  readily  when  grafted. 

This  operation  will  be  described  as  generally  practiced 
on  the  peach,  although  the  practice  will  differ  not  at  all 
for  propagating  apples,  pears,  or  any  of  the  stone  fruits. 

Stock  for  budding  is  generally  the  one-year  seedlings 
obtained  by  stratifying  the  seeds  over  winter  and  planting 
out  the  following  spring.  The  seedlings  will  be  large 
enough  by  June  in  the  South  for  budding,  and  by  August 


26G 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


in  the  Northern  states.  When  budded  in  June,  the  tops  of 
the  seedlings  are  cut  away  as  soon  as  the  buds  have  united, 
and  the  growth  from  the  buds  is  very  rapid,  so  that  by  late 
autumn  it  is  large  enough  for  planting  in  the  orchard. 


b 


Budding  sticks.  At  a  the  leaf  blades  have  been  cut  away, 
and  at  b  the  buds  to  be  used  are  partially  cut  off  and  made 
ready  to  take  to  the  field.  Sticks  prepared  in  this  way  must 
be  wrapped  in  a  wet  cloth  to  keep  the  buds  from  drying  out. 


Budding  267 

While  June  budded  trees  are  usually  smaller  than  those 
budded  in  late  summer,  one  year's  time  has  been  saved, 
which  is  often  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  the  grower, 
whether  he  is  growing  them  for  his  own  use  or  to  sell. 

For  summer  budding,  which  is  the  most  common  prac- 
tice, the  buds  should  be  inserted  about  the  last  week  in 
August  or  first  week  in  September.  In  general  the  bud- 
ding should  JL>Q  done  at  the  time  when  the  bark  will  peel 
the  best.  When  the  work  is  ready  to  be  done  the  buds  are 
to  be  selected  from  the  desired  varieties.  Buds  are  always 
procured  from  the  young  branches  that  have  grown  the 
same  season  the  budding  is  done.  On  these  young 
branches  there  will  always  be  a  few  inches  toward  the  tip 
which  is  soft  and  immature,  and  therefore  this  part  should 
be  cut  away.  Peach  tree  twigs  contain  both  flower  buds 
and  leaf  buds.  If  flower  buds  only  were  present  and  were 
used  for  budding,  they  would  do  nothing  but  blossom  and 
die,  while  the  leaf  buds  (also  called  wood  buds)  will  grow 
and  make  a  top  to  the  tree.  The  best  wood  buds  are  found 
towards  the  middle  of  the  twig. 

The  wood  buds  may  be  distinguished  from  the  flower 
buds  (also  called  fruit  buds)  by  remembering  that  they  are 
smaller,  flatter  and  never  so  plump.  A  fruit  bud  can  do  no 
particular  harm  if  there  is  also  a  wood  bud.  It  is  desir- 
able to  remember  this  as  a  wood  bud  will  frequently  have 
a  fruit  bud  on  either  side  of  it.  When  this  is  the  case  the 
outside  buds  may  be  broken  off,  as  they  are  of  no  use. 
Where  there  is  only  one  bud  at  the  base  of  the  leaf,  it  is 
usually  a  wood  bud,  and  where  there  are  two  or  three  in 
a  row  across  the  twig,  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  middle 
one  is  a  wood  bud  and  the  outside  ones  are  fruit  buds. 
After  a  little  observation  and  practice  it  will  not  be  hard  to 
distinguish  between  the  two  kinds,  and  to  select  the  proper 
one  to  use. 

The  weather  is  usually  very  warm  at  budding  time,  so 
it  will  be  necessary  to  wrap  the  twigs  from  which  the 
buds  are  to  be  taken  in  wet  paper  or  a  damp  cloth  to  pre- 
vent their  drying  out.  As  soon  as  a  twig  is  cut  from  the 
tree,  trim  off  the  leaves,  leaving  a  piece  of  the  stem  about 


268 


The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 


half  an  inch  long  to  hold  to  when  the  buds  are  being  in^ 
serted. 

The  manner  of  cutting  the  bud  from  the  twig,  which  is 
known  as  the  budding  stick,  is  to  hold  the  stick  in  the  left 
hand  upside  down  and  with  the  other  hand  force  the  knife 
blade  down  through  the  bark  and  into  the  wood,  making  a 
downward  cut.  Next  withdraw  the  knife  and,  at  a  point 
down  near  to  where  the  cut  stopped,  make  a  cross  cut  just 


Budding  peaches.  A  is  a  seedling  showing  the  T-shaped 
cut;  at  b  the  flaps  have  been  lifted,  at  c  the  bud  has  been 
inserted.,  and  d  shows  how  it  is  tied  with  raffia.  At  e  the 
bud  has  united  and  the  raffia  removed. 


through  the  bark  and  no  deeper.  If  the  bark  peels  easily, 
and  it  should  at  budding  time,  the  bud  may  be  lifted  up  and 
will  part  from  the  wood  very  readily.  While  many 
prefer  to  have  no  wood  adhering  to  the  bud,  there  are 
some  others  who  slice  the  buds  off  from  the  twig,  leaving 
a  portion  of  the  wood  attached  to  them. 

The  little  seedling  peaches  should  be  budded  as  near  the 
ground  as  is  convenient  to  work,  which  will  be  within  two 
or  three  inches  of  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  first  step 
in  preparing  the  seedling  to  receive  the  bud  is  to  make  a 


Budding  269 

slit  in  the  bark  lengthwise,  and  at  the  upper  end  of  this 
slit  a  cross  cut,  thus  forming  a  T-shaped  figure  on  the 
bark  of  the  seedling.  The  bark  should  peel  readily  and  is 
gently  raised  and  turned  back.  Now  the  bud  should  be 
cut  from  the  budding  stick  as  directed  and  inserted  be- 
neath the  bark  of  the  sprout  by  holding  with  thumb  and 
finger  the  short  stein  left  for  the  purpose  and  forcing  it 
downward  sharp  end  first,  until  the  square  end  of  the  bud 
gets  down  to  where  it  will  fit  against  the  cross  cut  in  the 
bark  itself.  The  bud  is  then  ready  for  wrapping. 

In  order  that  the  bud  may  form  a  union  with  the  grow- 
ing seedling  it  is  necessary  to  press  it  closely  against  the 
tree  by  binding  with  some  sort  of  string.  Nurserymen  com- 
monly use  a  kind  of  material  called  "raffia,"  which  is  wet 
before  applying  and  adjusts  itself  to  the  parts  to  be  covered 
and  makes  an  excellent  wrapper.  A  good  substitute  for 
raffia  easily  obtained  by  everyone  is  strips  a  quarter  or  half 
an  inch  wide  torn  from  old  soft  cotton  cloths.  Buds  are 
sometimes  tied  with  strips  of  wet  corn  shucks.  Whatever 
is  used  is  to  be  bound  around  newly  inserted  buds  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  leave  only  the  stem  of  the  leaf  sticking  out. 
This  leaf  stem  will  serve  as  an  indicator  to  show  whether 
the  bud  has  united  or  not.  If  the  stem  remains  green  the 
bud  is  living;  otherwise  it  will  turn  brown  in  a  day  or  two. 
Do  not  wait  longer  than  ten  days  before  examining  the 
buds  to  see  if  they  are  living.  If  they  have  united  with 
the  trees,  release  the  bandage  by  cutting  it  on  the  opposite 
side  from  the  bud  in  order  to  not  disturb  the  healing 
wound.  This  early  examination  and  cutting  of  the  string 
must  not  be  forgotten,  as  it  is  very  important.  At  this 
time  the  tree  will  be  making  a  very  rapid  growth  in  thick- 
ness and  in  a  remarkably  short  time  will  grow  over  the 
string  and  choke  the  tree  to  death,  or  what  is  more  to  the 
point,  will  make  a  deep  ring  in  the  tree  and  cause  it  to 
break  off  where  the  bud  is  inserted.  During  the  autumn 
in  which  the  bud  is  inserted  in  the  tree  it  will  make  no 
growth  other  than  to  make  a  firm  union  with  the  stock, 
the  bud  itself  remaining  dormant. 

The  following  spring  the  bud  will  begin  to  grow  along 


270  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

with  the  other  buds  on  the  tree,  and  then  the  seedling  top 
must  be  cut  off  at  from  one-half  an  inch  to  an  inch  above 
the  bud.  This  will  throw  all  of  the  growth  into  the  new 
bud,  which  will  shoot  up  rapidly.  A  large  number  of  little 
sprouts  will  spring  up  around  the  stump,  and  it  will  be 
necessary  to  rub  them  off  two  or  three  times  during  the 
summer  in  order  to  keep  the  growth  where  it  is  wanted. 

It  is  best  to  plant  peach  seeds  in  rows  running  north 
and  south,  which  will  make  it  possible  to  bud  all  of  the 
trees  on  the  north  side.  This  is  believed  to  be  desirable, 
because  it  is  thought  that  the  sun  may  injure  the  buds 
when  they  are  first  inserted.  One  season's  growth  from 
the  bud  makes  trees  of  the  proper  age  for  planting  in  the 
orchard. 

"Springing  the  Bud" 

In  very  early  budding,  or  at  any  time  during  a  dry  sea- 
son when  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  mature  buds,  pinching  the 
little  points  of  the  shoots  from  which  the  buds  are  to  be 
taken  ten  days  or  so  before  they  are  required  will  have  the 
result  of  perfecting  them.  This  is  called  "springing  the 
bud"  and  is  the  proper  practice  when  the  embryonic  twig 
seems  to  be  loitering.  We  have  a  great  deal  to  learn  yet 
about  budding  and  it  is  a  science  which  every  horticulturist 
should  acquire  for  the  time  is  coming  when  we  will  be 
producing  the  most  of  our  planting  and  renewal  stock  in 
this  way. 

How  to  Make  Grafting  Wax 

Gratfing  waxes  may  be  prepared  in  a  great  variety  of 
ways,  nearly  all  of  them  using  resin  and  beeswax  for  the 
foundation.  Some  grafting  waxes  need  to  be  melted  over 
a  fire  and  applied  hot,  others  are  soft  and  pliable  when 
cold.  The  latter  can  be  used  in  cool  climates,  but  where 
the  summers  are  very  warm,  the  thin  waxes  when  used  on 
wounds  or  top-grafts  are  liable  to  melt  and  run. 

The  hard  waxes  can  easily  be  kept  in  a  working  condi- 
tion in  the  field  by  placing  the  vessel  containing  the  wax 


Evaporating  Apples  271 

over  a  lighted  kerosene  lamp.  If  the  lamp  is  placed  inside 
a  box  that  has  a  hole  cut  in  the  top  large  enough  to  let  the 
wax  pot  set  in,  the  lamp  can  then  be  protected  from  blow- 
ing out  in  the  wind. 

Common  Grafting  Waxes 

1 — 4  pounds  resin,  2  pounds  beeswax,  1  pound  tallow. 
2 — 6  pounds  resin,  2  pounds  beeswax,  1  pound  tallow. 
3 — 6  pounds  resin,  2  pounds  beeswax,  1  pint  linseed  oil. 
4 — 4  pounds  resin,  1  pound  beeswax,  1  pint  raw  linseed 
oil. 

Waxed  String  for  Grafting 

Common  knitting  cotton,  No.  18,  dropped  into  any  of 
the  waxes  made  from  beeswax  and  resin  while  the  wax  is 
melted.  The  ball  should  be  turned  over  frequently  and 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  hot  wax  for  several  minutes  to  be- 
come thoroughly  saturated. 

This  string  is  useful  in  wrapping  grafts  and  does  not 
need  to  be  tied.  Waxed  cloth  can  be  made  in  the  same 
way,  and  is  used  in  making  top  grafts. 


Evaporating  Apples 

It  frequently  happens  that  a  portion  of  the  fruit  crop 
cannot  be  profitably  marketed  at  harvest  time,  and  unless 
used  in  some  other  form  it  becomes  waste  on  the  hands 
of  the  grower.  Such  fruit  may  be  dried  or  evaporated  and 
be  thus  converted  into  a  marketable  or  usable  product. 

There  is  a  distinction  between  "dried"  and  "evaporated" 
fruit,  the  former  term  usually  being  applied  to  sun  dried 
fruit  and  the  latter  to  fruit  that  is  dried  in  an  evaporator. 
For  home  use,  where  only  small  quantities  are  needed,  sun- 
drying  is  the  easiest  means  of  handling  such  fruit.  The 
fruit  to  be  sun-dried  is  first  pared  and  quartered  or  sliced 
and  placed  on  a  suitable  surface  in  the  sunlight,  where  it 
will  have  the  advantage  of  free  circulation  of  air.  It  is 


272  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

always  advisable  in  sun-drying  to  have  the  fruit  cov- 
ered with  a  thin  screen  that  is  raised  an  inch  or  so  above 
the  fruit  to  protect  it  from  being  spoiled  by  insects.  It  is 
impossible,  or  at  least  difficult,  to  protect  sun-dried  fruit 
from  dust.  This  is  one  of  the  most  serious  objections  to 
this  manner  of  drying  fruit,  as  the  dust  is  always  full  of 
germs  of  many  kinds. 

Artificial  evaporators  of  convenient  size  may  be  had 
for  home  use,  and  are  simple  to  construct  and  operate.  A 
kitchen  cook  stove  is  serviceable  for  small  quantities,  and 
there  are  some  evaporators  on  the  market  for  use  in  this 
way.  However,  the  principle  of  these  evaporators  is  to 
support  the  fruit  over  a  vessel  containing  hot  water  in  such 
manner  that  the  fruit  will  not  be  cooked  nor  bathed  by  the 
steam,  but  dried  by  a  continuous  flow  of  dry  air.  A  wire 
screen  supported  over  a  bake  pan  that  is  covered  will  an- 
swer the  purpose. 

Portable  evaporators  for  use  in  the  orchard  and  capable 
of  handling  five  or  ten  bushels  of  fruit  a  day  are  easily 
constructed,  or  may  be  bought  ready  for  use.  They  con- 
sist of  a  sheet  iron  stove  over  which  is  a  box  holding  sev- 
eral trays  on  which  the  sliced  fruit  is  spread.  These  trays 
are  made  of  slats  of  wood,  or  galvanized  iron  screens.  The 
top  and  bottom  of  the  box  is  provided  with  openings  that 
will  allow  of  free  passage  of  air  over  the  fruit. 

For  market  it  is  often  customary  to  bleach  the  fruit 
with  the  fumes  of  sulphur  in  order  to  keep  it  white  and 
produce  what  is  sometimes  believed  to  be  a  more  pleasing 
appearance.  However,  as  the  bleaching  causes  the  fruit 
to  absorb  more  or  less  of  sulphurous  acid,  it  is  rendered 
deleterious  to  the  health.  For  home  use  bleaching  should 
not  be  done. 

Where  considerable  quantities  of  fruit  are  to  be  evap- 
orated some  of  the  simple  paring  and  slicing  machines  that 
are  operated  by  hand  will  facilitate  preparing  the  fruit. 
But  where  large  quantities  are  to  be  handled  a  power  ma- 
chine will  give  better  service.  There  are  such  machines 
on  the  market  that  are  capable  of  paring  as  much  as  400 
bushels  of  apples  a  day. 


By-Laws  of  Grand  Junction  Fruit-Growers'  Ass'n     273 

After  the  fruit  is  pared  it  will  have  to  be  trimmed  of 
any  little  scraps  of  skin  or  worm  holes  and  other  blem- 
ishes. This  is  possible  only  by  hand  work,  and  must  be 
done  with  an  ordinary  paring  knife.  Where  the  fruit  is  to 
be  bleached,  it  is  treated  as  soon  after  the  paring  and  trim- 
ming as  possible.  The  fruit  is  enclosed  in  a  tight  box  in 
shallow  layers,  over  which  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur 
are  passing.  It  will  take  an  exposure  of  half  an  hour  to 
an  hour  and  a  half  to  sufficiently  bleach  the  fruit.  If  a 
long  delay  occurs  between  the  paring  and  bleaching  it  is 
impossible  to  make  the  fruit  regain  its  original  whiteness. 

The  time  required  for  drying  will  depend  entirely  on 
local  conditions,  and  to  a  small  extent  on  the  weather, 
taking  a  longer  time  in  rainy  weather  than  in  dry.  To  de- 
termine when  the  fruit  is  dry  is  dependent  largely  on  the 
experience  of  the  dryer.  The  fruit  should  be  so  dry  that 
when  a  handful  is  pressed  into  a  ball  it  will  be  "springy" 
enough  to  separate  at  once  upon  being  released.  It  should 
not  be  possible  to  press  any  juice  from  any  of  the  slices, 
and  the  fruit  should  have  a  soft,  velvety,  leathery  texture. 

In  large  fruit  sections  it  is  often  a  very  remunerative 
business  to  operate  a  large  evaporator  which  can  use  all 
of  the  unsaleable  fruit  from  the  vicinity,  this  being  espe- 
cially the  case  when  the  evaporator  can  be  used  in  connec- 
tion with  a  vinegar  or  canning  plant. 

By-Laws  of  Grand  Junction  Fruit-Growers'  Ass'n. 

I 

The  name  of  the  said  association  shall  be  the  Grand 
Junction  Fruit  Growers'  Association. 

II 

The  objects  for  which  the  said  association  is  created 
are  to  buy  and  sell  fruit,  vegetables,  hogs,  meat  stock,  and 
all  of  the  products  of  Mesa  County,  both  fresh  and  manu- 
factured; to  erect,  operate  and  maintain  canning  and  pack- 
ing factories  and  commission  houses;  to  manufacture  and 


274  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

sell  all  products  of  Mesa  County;  to  lease,  mortgage  and 
sell  said  business,  and  to  borrow  money  for  carrying  on 
same,  and  to  pledge  their  property  and  franchise  for  such 
purpose.  To  acquire  by  purchase  and  own  real  estate, 
buildings,  machinery  and  all  the  necessary  power  and  pow- 
er plants  for  carrying  on  said  premises,  and  to  lease,  mort- 
gage and  sell  the  same. 

Ill 

The  term  of  existence  of  said  association  shall  be  twen- 
ty years. 

IV 

The  capital  stock  of  the  said  association  shall  be  twenty- 
five  thousand  dollars,  divided  into  five  thousand  shares  of 
five  dollars  each. 

V 

The  number  of  directors  of  said  association  shall  be 
seven,  and  the  names  of  those  who  shall  manage  the  af- 
fairs of  the  association  for  the  first  year  of  its  existence 
are  C.  W.  Steele,  A.  A.  Miller,  J.  W.  Rose,  R.  W.  Shrop- 
shire, J.  H.  Smith,  P.  A.  Rice  and  A.  B.  Hoyt. 

VI 

The  principal  office  of  said  association  shall  be  kept  at 
Grand  Junction  in  the  said  county,  and  the  principal  busi- 
ness of  said  association  shall  be  carried  on  in  the  county 
of  Mesa. 

VII 

The  stock  of  the  association  shall  be  non-assessable. 
VIII 

The  directors  shall  have  the  power  to  make  such  pru- 
dential by-laws  as  they  may  deem  proper  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  affairs  of  the  association  not  inconsistent  with 
the  laws  of  this  state,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  all 
kinds  of  business  within  the  objects  and  purposes  of  the 
association. 


By-Laws  of  Grand  Junction  Fruit  Growers'  Ass'n    275 
BY-LAWS 
Article  I 

Section  1.  The  board  of  directors  provided  for  in  the 
articles  of  incorporation  of  this  association  shall  be  elected 
annually  at  the  regular  annual  meeting  of  the  stockholders, 
as  hereinafter  provided,  and  shall  hold  their  office  until 
their  successors  are  elected  and  qualified. 

Section  2.  Said  directors  shall  be  stockholders  in  said 
association  and  shall  be  fruit  growers  in  Grand  Valley  and 
shall  be  residents  of  Mesa  County,  Colorado. 

Section  3.  Any  vacancy  occurring  in  the  board  of  di- 
rectors shall  be  filled  by  the  remaining  members  of  the 
board. 

Article  II 

Section  1.  The  board  of  directors  shall,  as  soon  as 
may  be  after  their  election,  elect  a  president  and  vice-presi- 
dent from  among  their  number,  who  shall  hold  their  of- 
fices for  one  year,  and  at  said  meeting  the  said  board  shall 
appoint  a  secretary-treasurer  and  manager,  who  shall  be 
subject  to  removal  at  any  time. 

Section  2.  The  secretary,  treasurer  and  manager  shall 
each,  when  required  by  the  board,  give  bond  in  such  sum 
and  with  such  security  as  the  directors  may  require,  con- 
ditioned on  the  faithful  performance  of  their  duties,  and  to 
turn  over  to  their  successors  in  office  all  books,  papers, 
vouchers,  money,  funds  and  property  of  whatsoever  kind 
or  nature  belonging  to  the  association  upon  expiration  of 
their  respective  terms  of  office,  or  upon  their  being  re- 
moved therefrom,  or  with  other  conditions  as  may  be 
proper. 

Section  3.  The  president  shall  preside  at  all  meetings 
of  the  directors  or  stockholders.  He  shall  sign  as  presi- 
dent all  certificates  of  stock  and  all  other  contracts  and 
other  instruments  in  writing,  which  may  have  been  ordered 
by  the  board  of  directors. 

Section  4.  The  vice-president  shall  in  the  absence  of 
or  disability  of  the  president,  perform  his  duties. 


276  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

Section  5.  The  manager  shall  have  full  charge  of  the 
commercial  and  shipping^ department  of  the  association. 
He  shall  receive  all  money  arising  from  the  sale  of  fruit 
and  other  commodities  handled  by  the  association,  and  pay 
the  same  to  the  parties  entitled  thereto,  and  render  a  true 
account  thereof;  and  he  shall  also  be  the  treasurer  of  the 
association  and  disburse  same  under  the  direction  of  the 
board  of  directors,  except  as  hereinabove  set  forth. 

Section  6.  The  secretary  shall  keep  a  record  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  board  of  directors  and  also  of  the  meet- 
ings of  the  stockholders.  He  shall  also  keep  a  book  of 
blank  certificates  of  stock,  fill  up  and  countersign  all  cer- 
tificates issued,  and  make  the  corresponding  entries  upon 
the  marginal  stub  of  each  certificate  issued.  He  shall  keep 
a  stock  ledger  in  due  form,  showing  the  number  of  shares 
issued  to  and  transferred  by  any  stockholder  and  da.te  of 
issuance  and  transfer.  He  shall -have  charge  of  the  cor- 
porate seal  and  affix  the  same  to  all  instruments  requiring 
a  seal.  He  shall  keep  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the 
board  of  directors  all  accounts  of  the  association  with  its 
stockholders,  in  books  provided  for  such  purpose.  He  shall 
discharge  such  other  duties  as  pertain  to  his  office  and  as 
may  be  prescribed  by  the  board  of  directors. 

Section  7.  These  by-laws  may  be  amended  by  the  board 
of  directors  at  any  special  meeting  thereof  called  for  that 
purpose,  a  notice  of  such  proposed  amendment  being  given 
in  the  call  for  such  special  meeting. 

Article  III 

Section  1.  The  regular  meeting  of  the  board  of  direc- 
tors shall  be  held  at  the  office  of  the  company  on  the  first 
(1st)  day  of  each  month,  except  when  the  first  day  comes 
on  Sunday  or  legal  holiday,  then  on  the  following  day. 

Special  meetings  of  the  board  of  directors  may  be  called 
by  tHe  president  when  he  may  deem  it  expedient  or  neces- 
sary, or  by  the  secretary  upon  the  request  of  any  three 
members  of  said  board. 

Section  2.     A  majority  of  the  board  of  directors  shall 


278  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

constitute  a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business,  but  a 
less  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day  upon  giving 
notice  to  absent  members  of  the  said  board  of  said  ad- 
journment. 

Section  3.    The  board  of  directors  shall  have  power: 

First.  To  call  special  meetings  of  the  stockholders 
whenever  they  deem  it  necessary,  by  publishing  a  notice 
of  such  meeting  once  a  week  for  two  weeks  preceding  such 
meeting  in  some  newspaper  published  in  Grand  Junction, 
Colorado. 

Second.  To  appoint  and  remove  at  pleasure  all  em- 
ployes and  agents  of  the  association,  prescribe  their  duties, 
where  the  same  have  not  been  prescribed  by  the  by-laws 
of  the  association,  fix  their  compensation,  and  when  they 
deem  it  necessary,  to  require  security  for  the  faithful  per- 
formance of  their  duties. 

Third.  To  make  such  rules  and  regulations  not  incon- 
sistent with  the  laws  of  the  state  of  Colorado,  and  articles 
of  incorporation,  or  the  by-laws  of  the  association,  for  the 
guidance  of  the  officers  and  the  management  of  the  affairs 
of  the  association. 

Fourth.  To  incur  such  indebtedness  as  they  may  deem 
necessary  for  carrying  out  the  objects  and  purposes  of  the 
association  and  to  authorize  the  president  and  secretary  to 
make  the  note  of  the  association  with  which  to  raise  money 
to  pay  such  indebtedness. 

Section  4.    It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board  of  directors: 

First.  To  be  caused  to  be  kept  a  complete  record  of  all 
of  their  meetings  and  acts,  and  also  the  proceedings  of  the 
stockholders,  present  full  statements  at  the  regular  meet- 
ings of  the  stockholders,  showing  in  detail  the  assets  and 
liabilities  of  the  association,  and  the  condition  of  the  af- 
fairs in  general. 

Second.  To  supervise  all  acts  of  the  officers  and  em- 
ployes, require  the  secretary,  treasurer  and  manager  to 
keep  full  and  accurate  books  of  account  of  their  respective 
business. 


By-Laws  of  Grand  Junction  Fruit  Growers'  Ass'n     279 

Article  IV 

Section  1.  At  the  regular  meeting  in  the  month  of  Jan- 
uary of  each  year  the  directors  shall  declare  such  dividends 
upon  the  capital  stock,  to  all  the  stockholders  then  appear- 
ing of  record,  as  may  be  warranted  by  the  net  earnings  of 
the  association  for  the  preceding  year. 

Article  V 

Section  1.  The  board  of  directors  may,  whenever  they 
shall  deem  it  necessary,  place  on  sale  so  much  of  the  cap- 
ital stock  of  the  association  as  may  be  necessary  to  raise 
funds  for  the- purpose  of  carrying  out  the  objects  and  pur- 
poses of  the  organization  of  the  association,  such  stock  to 
be  sold  only  upon  the  following  conditions: 

First.  That  not  more  than  three  hundred  (300)  shares 
thereof  be  sold  to  any  one  person,  firm  or  association  of 
persons. 

Second.  That  such  stock  be  sold  to  fruit  growers  in 
Grand  Valley. 

Third.  That  such  stock  be  sold  at  not  less  than  par 
value  of  five  dollars  ($5)  per  share. 

Article  VI 

Section  1.  The  annual  meeting  of  the  stockholders  for 
the  election  of  directors  shall  be  held  on  the  third  (3rd) 
Saturday  in  January  each  year,  but  if,  for  any  reason,  it 
should  not  be  held  on  such  day,  it  may  then  be  held  on  any 
day  subsequent  thereto  as  hereinafter  provided. 

Section  2.  The  board  of  directors  shall  be  elected  by 
the  stockholders  at  the  regular  annual  meeting.  Public 
notice  of  the  time  and  place  of  holding  such  meeting  and 
election  shall  be  published  not  less  than  ten  (10)  days 
prior  thereto,  in  some  newspaper  of  general  circulation 
printed  in  Grand  Junction  and  the  said  election  shall  be 
made  by  such  of  the  stockholders  as  shall  attend  for  that 
purpose,  either  in  person  or  by  proxy,  providing  the  ma- 
jority of  the  outstanding  stock  is  represented.  If  a  ma- 


280  The  Fruit-Growers  Guide-Book 

jority  of  the  outstanding  stock  shall  not  be  represented, 
such  meeting  may  be  adjourned  by  the  stockholders  pres- 
ent for  a  period  not  exceeding  sixty  (60)  days.  All  elec- 
tions shall  be  by  ballot,  and  each  stockholder  shall  be  en- 
titled to  as  many  votes  as  he  or  she  owns  shares  of  stock 
in  said  association;  provided,  however,  that  no  person  who 
is  not  himself  a  stockholder  shall  be  allowed  to  represent 
by  proxy  any  stockholder  in  the  said  association. 

The  persons  receiving  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall 
be  the  directors  for  the  ensuing  year,  and  until  their  suc- 
cessors are  elected  and  qualified. 

Article  VII 

Section  1.  Certificates  of  stock  may  be  transferred  af: 
any  time  by  the  holders  thereof,  or  by  attorneys  in  fact  or 
legal  representatives.  Such  transfers  shall  be  made  by  in- 
dorsement on  the  certificate  of  stock  and  surrender  of 
same;  provided,  such  transfer  shall  not  be  valid  until  same 
shall  have  been  noted  in  the  proper  form  on  the  books  of 
the  association.  The  surrendered  certificates  shall  be  can- 
celed before  a  new  certificate  in  lieu  thereof  shall  be  is- 
sued, and  no  transfer  of  any  share  of  stock  shall  be  valid 
or  allowed  upon  the  books  of  the  association  upon  which 
any  deferred  payments  are  due  and  unpaid,  or  which  has 
not  been  sold  and  transferred  in  accordance  with  the  pro- 
visions of  the  by-laws  of  the  association. 

Section  2.  Any  stockholder  desiring  to  dispose  of  his 
stock  in  the  said  association  shall  deposit  the  same  with  the 
secretary  of  the  association,  and  the  same  shall  be  sold  by 
the  secretary  at  not  less  than  par  for  the  account  of  such 
stockholder  within  sixty  (60)  days  from  date  of  such  de- 
posit, under  the  restrictions  of  section  1,  article  V,  of  these 
by-laws:  provided,  that  if  the  secretary  shall  not  have  sold 
such  stock  at  the  expiration  of  sixty  days,  then  such  stock 
may  be  returned  to  the  stockholder  and  disposed  of  by 
him,  without  restriction  or  limitation  by  the  association. 

Article  VIII 
Section  1.    All  members  of  the  association  are  required 


By-Laws  of  Grand  Junction  Fruit-Growers'  Ass'n     281 

to  market  all  of  their  fruit  through  the  association  and 
bear  their  proportionate  share  of  the  expenses  of  handling 
same. 

Section  2.  Any  member  may  have  the  privilege  of  sell- 
ing his  own  fruit  at  the  orchard,  but  no  sales  of  fruit  shall 
be  made  to  a  dealer  in  fruit,  or  to  any  person  why  buys 
to  ship  outside  the  county.  In  case  of  sale  of  the  entire 
crop  of  any  particular  fruit  or  fruits,  by  reporting  the  same 
to  the  association,  one-half  (J/>)  only  of  the  regular  com- 
mission will  be  charged. 

Section  3.  Any  member  having  any  grievance  or  cause 
for  complaint  as  to  treatment  of  his  fruit  by  the  associa- 
tion can  appeal  to  the  board  of  directors,  whose  decision 
shall  be  final. 

Section  4.  All  members  must  pack  their  fruit  for  ship- 
ping in  a  neat  and  workman-like  manner,  and  pack  in 
standard  sized  packages,  as  adopted  and  in  general  use  by 
the  association,  having  placed  their  name  thereon. 

Article  IX 

Section  1.  A  purchaser  of  stock  of  this,  the  Grand  Junc- 
tion Fruit  Growers'  Association,  shall  hereafter  receive  of 
the  profits  of  the  association  in  proportion  to  the  money 
he  has  invested. 


Index 


283 


INDEX 


Page 

Altitude  22 

Ammoniacal    Copper    Car- 
bonate  131 

Anthracnose,    Currant 162 

Anthracnose,    Grape 164 

Anthracnose,   Raspberry.... 163 

Apple  Curculio  143 

Apple     Maggot 137 

Apples,    Packing 92 

Apples,    Picking 68 

Apples,   Quick  Maturing...     40 

Apples,  Thinning  65 

Asparagus  Beetle  154 

Bagworm    150 

Baits,    Poisoned   127 

Baldwin  Fruit  Spot 157 

Bark  Louse   137 

Barrels,  Packing  Apples  in  92 

Beans,  Packing 80 

Bean  Weevil  155 

Beets,  Packing  82 

Berry  Worm   153 

Bitter    Rot 155 

Blackberries    204 

Blackberry   Diseases 163 

Black   Knot 162 

Black  Peach  Aphis 149 

Black  Rot  164 

Black  Rot  158 

Blight 168 

Blister  Mite  148 

Blotch    156 

Borers   143 

Bordeaux  Mixture  130 

Boxes,  Packing  Apples  in  94 

Boxes,  Size  of 95 

Brown  Mite  137 

Brown  Rot  166 

Brown  Spot  157 

Brown-Tail  Moth  138 

Buckets     70 

Buckwheat  46 

Budding    256 

Budding    264 

Bud  Moth  .137 

Cabbage,  Packing 79 

Cane  Blight,  Currant 162 

Cane  Blight,   Raspberry.. ..163 


Page 

Canker  Worm 139 

Canning  Fruits  and  Vege- 
tables   ...239 

Carbon  Bisulphide  124 

Celery,  Packing 82 

Cheap  Trees  36 

Cherry  Diseases  162 

Cigar   Case   Bearer 139 

Clearing  Sage  Brush 33 

Cleft  Graft  262 

Clover,  Crimson  46 

Clover,   Red 47 

Clover    Sweet 47 

Codling   Moth 139 

Cover  Crops  45 

Cover  Crop  and  Tillage....  40 

Cowpea    47 

Crops  for  Tilled  Orchard..  42 

Crown  Borer  152 

Crown   Gall    158 

Crown  Gall,  Raspberry 163 

Cucumbers,    Packing   81 

Cultivation,  Excessive 40 

Curculio,     Plum 141 

Currants 208 

Currant  Diseases  162 

Danger  Points  _. 61 

Dewberry   210 

Directions  for  Processing  245 

Downy  Mildew  164 

Dropsy  163 

Environment,  Influence  of  49 
Evaporating  Apples  271 

Fall   Web  Worm....  ....144 

Fall    Plowing    ... 26 

Fillers   39 

Fillers,   Small   Fruits 40 

Flea   Beetle 152 

Fly  Speck  158 

Formalin     132 

Fungous  Diseases  155 

Fungicides  129 

Frost    Fighting,    Develop- 
ment of  52 

Frosty   Mildew 167 

Fruit-Growers'  Ass'ns,  By- 
Laws,  Grand  Junction....273 


Index 


Page 

Grafting   256 

Grafting  Wax 270 

Grapes  212 

Grape-Cane  Gall  Maker.. ..154 

Grape-Cane  Girdler ....154 

Grape  Insects  152 

Grapes,  Packing 86 

Grapes,   Sex  in 217 

Grading 77 

Grading  Machines  96 

Green  Aphis  of  the  Apple  134 

Green  Manures  45 

Green  Manuring  Crops......   18 

Gypsy  Moth 145 

Hamilton    Grading    Ma- 
chine   96 

Hard  and  Power  Pumps.. ..113 

Harvesting 67 

Harvesting   Blackberries    207 

Healing  of  Wounds ..179 

Hellebore   128 

How  to  Plant.... 37 

Hydrocyanic   Acid   Gas 124 

Insecticides ....121 

Irrigated  Land,  Preparing  26 
Irrigation,    Preventing 

Frost    By :.....  52 

Kerosene  Emulsion  ..122 

Ladders 70 

Land,  Clearing  Sage  Brush  33 

Land,  New  ....: 17 

Land,  Old  Pasture 18 

Land,  Preparing  Irrigated  26 

Laying  Out  Orchards  26 

Laying  Out  Orchard  on 

Rough  Land 31 

Lead  Arsenate  126 

Leaf  Curl  167 

Leaf  Folder 152 

Leaf  Hopper .,  153 

Leaf  Roller  150 

*  Leaf  Spot  162 

Leaf  Spot,  .Strawberry .172 

Lettuce,  Packing  80 

Lime-Sulphur,  Self-Boiled  132 

l  Lime-Sulphur 123 

Location  for  Commercial 

Orchards 20 

Manure 18 

Mechanical  Pickers  ..,., ,  69 

Meecham's    "A"    Level         .  32 

Mildew    ,.. 159 

Miscible  Oils  ...123 

New  Land ..17-23 

Nursery   Stock   •. 


Page 

Oak,  Scrub  17 

One-Year-Old  Trees 35 

Orchard  Heating  48 

Orchards,   Laying  Out 26 

Orchard  Soils  15 

Oil   and  Coal   55 

Orchard    Heaters,    Distri- 
bution     .....;....  57 

Orchard  Heaters,  Number 

to   Use   56-58 

Orchard  Heating,   Cost  of   59 

Orange   Rust  163 

Oyster   Shell    Scale 146 

Packages,  Modern  76 

Packers    Handle   But   One 

Size 102 

Packing  ..- 76 

Packing  Apples  in  Barrels  92 
Packing  Apples   in   Boxes   94 

Packing   the    Boxes   104 

Paris  Green  126 

Peach  Blight  ; 165 

Peach    Diseases    ...165 

Peaches,  Grading 89 

Peaches,  in  Boxes 91 

Peaches,    Limitations 22 

Peaches,    Packing 87 

Peach    Scab 167 

Peaches,  Thinning 66 

Pear  Diseases ...168 

Pear  Leaf  Blister  Mite 148 

Pear  Slug .....148 

Pears,  Thinning  66 

Peas,  Canada  Field 46 

Peas,    Packing   80 

Planting  Blackberries 205 

Planting  Grapes  213 

Planting    Systems    ....27-29-31 

Planting  Time 36 

Plum  Pockets 171 

Plowing  Bearing  Orchard  44 

Plowing,  Effect  of , 44 

Plowing  Orchard   Land 24 

Plowing   Sage   Brush 35 

Plowing    Young   Orchard..  43 

Picking  Bags   .. 70 

Picking   Peaches   73 

Picking  Pears  '. 74 

Potatoes,  Packing  78 

Powdery   Mildew 162 

Powdery  Mildew,  Grape.. ..165 
Preparing  Irrigated  Land  26 
Preparing    Land    for    Or- 
chard  .....  .7 23 

Preparing  Land  for  Straw- 
berries  227 

Preparing  Soil  for  Black- 
berries   205 


Index 


285 


Page 
Pruning — 

Apple  181 

Two-Year-Old    Apple 183 

Peach  185 

Cherry  191 

Apricots    193 

Blackberries    206 

Grapes  219 

Brambles    194 

Pears   193 

Principles  of 173 

Processing 243 

Processing,  Directions  for  245 
Profits  in  Fruit-Growing  199 
Propagation,  Blackberries  205 
Pyrethrum 125 

Radishes,  Packing 82 

Rail  Drag  34 

Railroad   Worm 137 

Raspberries   - 220 

Raspberry  Cane  Borer 154 

Raspberry  Diseases 163 

Red  Spiders  150 

Resin-Lime    Mixture 121 

Resin    Wash    128 

Renewing  Strawberry 

Field    234 

Rose   Chafer   153 

Root  Louse  151 

Root   Rot   160 

Rules  for  Naming  Fruits  253 

Rust  ;.-.. 159 

Rye,   Winter  46 

Sage   Brush 33 

San  Jose  Scale  147 

Sawfly  151 

Scab   160 

Scale  Insects  146 

Scurfy   Scale   , 146 

Sex  in  Strawberries 235 

Shade  Crops  44-45 

Shallow   Rooting   24 

Shed  Packing  Strawberries  86 

Site  for  Orchards 18 

Slug   151 

Small  Fruits,  Packing 83 

Smudges   54 

Soils   for  Orchard 15 

Soils,  Plowing  18 

Soils.   Stony 17 

Soil,  Virgin  17 


Page 
Soda  Bordeaux  Mixture.. ..130 

Sod  Mulch 40 

Soluble  Oils  123 

Sooty  Blotch  158 

Spraying  Ill 

Spraying  Materials  119 

Spring  Planting  36 

Step  Ladders  and  Picking 

Bags  71 

Sterilization .242 

Stony  Land  17 

Strawberries 223 

Strawberries  Between 

Trees 43 

Strawberry  Diseases  172 

Strawberry  Insects  150 

Strawberries,  Packing  83 

Strawberries,  Planting 230 

Strawberry  Soils  *.226 

Strawberries,  Time  to 

Plant 229 

Strawberry  Weevil  151 

Summer  Pruning  178 

Sun  Scalding 44 

Sweet  Potatoes,  Packing....  79 

Tanglefoot  125 

Transportation   21 

Temperature,   Freezing 61 

Tent    Caterpillar 147 

Thinning  Fruit  64 

Tillage  40 

Time  to  Plant  * 36 

Tobacco  122 

Tomatoes,  Packing  81 

Twig   Blight    158 

Two-Year-Old   Trees   35 

Varieties  to  Plant  ...        ....248 

Vegetable  Insects  154 

Vegetables   in   Orchard 43 

Vetch,   Winter....  46 

Virgin  Soil  17 

Water,  Preventing  Frosts  52 
Winter  Protection,  Black- 
berries     208 

Winter   Protection,    Rasp- 
berries     222 

Winter  Protection,  Straw- 
berries   233 

Wiping  Apples 96 

Woolly  Aphis  134 

Wounds,    Healing    of 179 


Books  on  Agriculture 


GENERAL    FARMING 

American    Farm    Book    Allen  .....$2.00 

Animal   Breeding    Shaw    1.50 

Book  of  Alfalfa Coburn  2.00 

Cereals  in  America   Hunt 1.75 

Clovers,    How  to   Grow   Them    Shaw    1.00 

Cyclopedia    of    Agriculture    (4   vols.)    Bailey    20.00 

Elements  of  Agriculture    Welborn     75 

Farm  Appliances   50 

Farm   Buildings   2.00 

Farm  Conveniences   1 .00 

Farm    Grasses    Spill  man    1.00 

Farm    Machinery  and    Farm   Motors    Davidson-Chase   2.00 

Forage  Crops  Voorhees    1 .50 

Ginseng   Kains   50 

How  Crops   Feed   Johnson    1.50 

How  Crops  Grow   Johnson    1.50 

Principles  of   Agriculture    Bailey    1 .25 

SOIL 

Fertilizers  Voorhees $1.25 

Fertility  of  the   Land    Roberts 1.50 

First   Principle  of  Soil    Fertility    Vivian    1.00 

Irrigation    Farming    Wilcox   2.00 

Irrigation    Institutions    Mead    1.25 

Soil   and    Crops   of  the    Farm    Morrow- Hunt     1.00 

Soils  • Hilgard    4.00 

The  Soil    King     (.50 

FRUIT-GROWING 

American  Apple   Orchard    Waugh   $(.00 

American    Fruit    Culturist    Thomas    2.50 

American    Horticultural   Manual   (vol.    I)    Budd-Hansen     1.50 

American    Horticultural   Manual   (vol.  2)    Budd-Hansen     1.50 

Citrus  Fruits  and  Their  Culture   Hume     2.50 

Conquest  of  Arid  America   Smythe    1.50 

Dwarf    Fruit   Trees   Waugh     50 

Forcing    Book    Bailey 1.25 

Fruit    Garden    Barry    1.50 

Fruit-Growing  in  Arid   Regions   Paddock-Whipple   1.50 

Fruit   Harvesting,   Storing  and    Marketing    Waugh   1.00 

Horticulturist'?   Rule   Book   Bailey    75 


Books  on  Agriculture — Continued 

Nursery   Book    Bailey    $1  50 

Nut   Culturist    Fuller     1.50 

Peach    Culture    Fulton    1.00 

Pear  Culture  for  Profits  Quinn     1.00 

Plums  and   Plum  Culture    Waugh     1.50 

Popular    Fruit-Growing    Greene    1.00 

Principles  of   Fruit-Growing    Bailey    1.50 

Propagation  of  Plants   Fuller    1.50 

Pruning  Book   Bailey 1.50 

Quince  Culture   Meech     1.00 

Successful  Fruit  Culture   Maynard    1.00 

Systematic    Pomology    Waugh   1 .00 

DISEASES    OF    PLANTS   AND   TREES 

Bacteria   in    Relation   to   Country    Life    Lipman    $1.50 

Disease   in   Plants    Ward    1.60 

Fumigation   Methods Johnson    1.00 

Fungous   Diseases  of   Plants    Duggar    2.50 

Plant    Diseases    Massee  1.60 

Spraying  of  Plants Lodeman    1.25 

Text  Book  on    Entomology   Packard     4.50 

Insects  and    Insecticides    Weed    1.50 

SMALL    FRUITS 

American    Grape   Growing   and   Wine   Making   Husman     $1.50 

Bush  Fruits  Card  1.50 

Cape   Cod   Cranberries    Webb    40 

Cranberry  Culture   White  1.00 

Grape   Culturist    Fuller    1.50 

Small  Fruit  Culturist  Fuller    1 .00 

Strawberry  Culturist Fuller    25 

GARDENING 

Asparagus  Hexamer   $0.50 

Bean    Culture    Sevey    50 

Book   of   Vegetables French   1.75 

Cabbage-Cauliflower    " Allen    50 

Celery    Culture    Beattie .50 

Mushrooms,   How  to  Grow  Them   Falconer    1.00 

New  Onion   Culture  Greiner    50 

New   Rhubarb    Morse   50 

Onions    20 

Potato,  The   Fraser    75 

Practical   Garden   Book   Bailey    1.00 

Sweet  Potato  Culture   Fitz    50 

Tomato  Culture    Tracy   50 

Truck   Farming   in   South    Davis    1.00 

Vegetable  Gardening   Bailey    ..   1.50 


Books  on  Agriculture — Continued 
POULTRY 

Ducks  and    Geese    $0.75 

Eggs  and    Egg    Farms    50 

Plymouth   Rocks  1 .25 

Poultry   Doctor Robinson   50 

Poultry   Houses  and   Fixtures  50 

Reliable  Poultry   Remedies  25 

Turkeys Myrick 1. 00 

Wyandottes  1.25 

MISCELLANEOUS 

A  B  C  &  X  Y  Z  of  Bee  Culture   Root   $1.50 

American  Sugar  Industry  Myrick   1.50 

Cement   Worker's    Hand    Boek    50 

Chemistry  of  Plant  and   Animal   Life   Snyder  ,   1.25 

Cider  Maker's  Hand  Book  Trowbridge   1. 00 

Cyclopedia  of  American    Horticulture   (4  vols.)    Bailey    20.00 

Evolution  of   Our   Native    Fruits   Bailey    2.00 

Farmer's   Business  Hand   Book  Roberts    1.25 

How  to   Cheose  a   Farm   Hunt    1.75 

Landscape    Gardening    Waugh....' 50 

New   Creations  in    Plant    Life    Harwood   1.75 

Plant    Breeding    ....Bailey    1.25 

Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare Fairchild    1.25 

Survival  of  the  Unlike  Bailey    2.00 

The  Farmstead Roberts    1.50 

Any  of  the  books  listed  on  the  preceding  pages  can  be 
obtained  at  the  price  named,  from 

THE  FRUIT-GROWER, 

ST.  JOSEPH,  MISSOURI 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $I.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


APR    5  1934 


407702 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


